State level bias crime legislation was passed throughout much of the United States over the last three decades. Beyond their prosecutorial or instrumental application, bias or hate crime laws serve an expressive or messaging function. This function is meant to promote societal cohesion through the rejection of hateful ideologies, as well as signal to attacked or marginalized members of communities that the government is directly addressing the effects of bias crime. As the number of reported hate crimes in the United States remains essentially level, it is of importance to assess how well the expressive function is performing. Following a background on the development, debate, and variation of bias or hate crime law, this project focuses on a content analysis of prominent state level media with the expectation that the expressive success of laws can be detected in bias crime coverage. It is found that bias crime related stories were featured with greater regularity in the states of Washington and Minnesota, which have passed extensive bias crime legislation. Bias crime related stories were far less prominent in South Carolina, which has no bias crime laws. The State of Wyoming, another state with no bias crime laws, displayed a surprisingly large amount of coverage, primarily as a result of the high-profile murder of Matthew Shepard in 1998.

博士(法学) / Doctor of Laws / 同志社大学 / Doshisha University

Research on hate crime has tended to utilize sociological frameworks to best explain the incidence of such offending, but little research has been conducted to determine whether political factors may play a role. Although Olzak (1990) touched upon the relationship between racial violence and third-party politics during the American Progressive era (1882-1914), the research did not fully articulate how political competition may influence the commission of hate crime. The current study seeks to fill this gap, while also extending concepts associated with social disorganization theory and the defended communities perspective. It does so by utilizing a longitudinal research design to assess the impact of theoretical predictors and political competition measures on hate crime prevalence in counties across three states (Tennessee, Virginia & West Virginia) over a seven-year span (2010-2016).

Hatbrott är ett problem idag som strider mot allas lika värde och väcker oro bland många i vårt samhälle, samtidigt har kritik riktats mot Sverige för utvecklingen av hatbrott och den utbredda rasismen. Flera förebyggande insatser mot hatbrott har därav i Sverige vidtagits, detta trots brist på forskning kring hatbrott generellt men framförallt förebyggandet av hatbrott. Föreliggande uppsats vill därför skapa en förståelse för hur olika aktörer i Malmö arbetar för att förebygga hatbrott, hur aktörerna tänker kring orsakerna till varför hatbrott begås och eventuella utmaningar i det förebyggande arbetet. För att besvara uppsatsens frågeställningar intervjuas tio personer från olika verksamheter i Malmö utifrån deras roll som en del av det förebyggande arbetet mot hatbrott. Resultatet visar att händelser i omvärlden, bristande kunskap, kultur och historia samt fördomar, ses som möjliga orsaker till varför hatbrott begås. Media och internets påverkan ses som bidragande faktorer till hatbrott. För att förebygga hatbrott betraktas olika former av utbildningsinsatser vara de mest framstående och effektiva, men några få mer direkta insatser nämns också. Ur resultatet framstår det att hela samhället har ett ansvar i det förebyggande arbetet och att alla aktörer måste arbeta gemensamt för ett mer inkluderande samhälle. Det är också viktigt att hantera det aktuella mörkertalet i hatbrottsstatistiken och stärka förtroendet mellan minoriteter och myndigheter. Uppsatsens informanter påpekar också att mer resurser måste läggas på det preventiva arbetet mot hatbrott. Vidare ger uppsatsen förslag på framtida forskning som bör undersöka vilka konkreta insatser de olika aktörerna i samhället ska vidta för att förebygga hatbrott, samt studera ämnet utifrån fler perspektiv. / Hate crime is a problem today that goes against everyone's equal value and arouses concern among many in our society, meanwhile Sweden has been criticized for the development of hate crimes and the widespread racism. Therefore, Sweden has implemented several preventive strategies against hate crimes, despite a lack of research on hate crimes in general and the sizable lack of research regarding prevention of hate crimes. The essay wants to create an understanding of how different actors in Malmö works to prevent hate crimes, what they consider causes hate crimes and possible challenges in the preventive work. To address the inquiries posed by the essay, ten people from different functions in Malmö are interviewed, based on their role as part of the preventive work against hate crimes. The results show that events in the world, lack of knowledge, culture and history, as well as prejudices, are possible reasons why hate crimes are committed. The influence of the media and the internet are seen as contributing factors to hate crimes. To prevent hate crimes, various forms of educational efforts are considered to be the most prominent and effective. Also, a few more direct interventions are mentioned. The result shows that the whole society has a responsibility in the preventive work and actors must work together for a more inclusive society. It is also important to deal with the current darkness in hate crime statistics, and enhancing trust between minority groups and authorities. The essay's informants also highlight that more resources must be put into preventive work against hate crimes. Furthermore, the essay suggests that future research should examine what concrete efforts various societal actors should take to prevent hate crimes. Future research should also approach the subject from different perspectives.

Aim: The principal aim of this qualitative research study is to gain a clearer understanding of oppression as experienced by People with Learning Disabilities (PWLD). In particular, this study investigated: 1) the nature of oppression - the typical kinds of oppression PWLD face during the course of their everyday lives; 2) the causes of their oppressive experiences: 3) the impact these oppressive experiences can have on their quality of life; and 4) their reaction - the strategies PWLD employ to prevent further oppression. Rationale: Despite policies of deinstitutionalisation since the 1980s, many PWLD have not found social integration easy and continue to endure oppressive experiences in community-based settings. The nature/extent of this social problem has often been overlooked by researchers and practitioners. Methods: This research was conducted using interpretive phenomenology as a methodology; an approach which influenced the study’s design, method of data collection and strategy for analysing the rich qualitative findings. Semi-structured interviews were carried out across two sample populations; a group of PWLD (N=11) and a group of community-based practitioners/carers (N=11). The participants were selected through purposive sampling and the qualitative data was analysed using a specific Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) process. Findings: PWLD remain a deeply oppressed social group. Respondents reported experiencing multiple forms of oppression, which seem to interact in complex ways and be present throughout the course of their lives. The two key super-ordinate themes (most dominant forms of oppression experienced by PWLD) emerging from the process of IPA appear to be: 1) The life-long effects of marginalisation (social exclusion, powerlessness and existing as a socio-economic underclass) and 2) Multiple forms of victimisation (coping with exploitation, intimidation and abuse, both overt and subtle, from the public, family members and at times practitioners). Respondents believe that the underlying cause of their oppressive experiences is society’s negative perception. Negative attitudes and beliefs arise from oppressive social forces such as: the use of diagnostic labels, segregated special needs education and limited opportunities for employment. These are experiences which respondents assert often do little more than spoil their social identity as human beings. Conclusion: The findings confirm that PWLD living in the community continue to encounter negative social experiences which are pervasive. This research attempts to draw together and make sense of these experiences in terms of the concept of oppression. Through gaining a clearer understanding of the marginalised and victimised status of PWLD policy makers will be more informed about how to respond to their social and economic needs, and in turn help alleviate their experiences of oppression.

Hate crime has emerged as a new ‘crime problem’ in Denmark, which has led to legislative adjustments and requirements of the police to improve identification, registration and handling of hate crime. International research shows that the investigation of hate crime is a complex issue not least because hate crime is legally not a crime category but an aggravating circumstance in principle to any crime. There exist no studies of hate crime policing in Denmark, and this study aims to fill a knowledge gap by a qualitative exploration of the processing of hate crime in the criminal justice system in a Danish context and from the perspective of the police, which is a relatively overlooked perspective. Specifically, the study explores why many hate crimes are filtered out through the criminal justice system, and through a thematic analysis the study identifies a number of challenges on a legal, organizational and practise level, that all contributes to a filtering out of hate crime throughout the Danish criminal justice system. Goldstein’s theory of problem-oriented policing is used as framework to discuss the implications of law in hate crime policing. The Danish police is expected to deal more effectively with the hate crime problem, and more knowledge on what works in hate crime policing is needed.   Keywords: Hate crime, investigation, criminal justice processing, problem-oriented policing, thematic analysis.

The increased digitalisation has resulted in a large portion of the population being connected in a digital environment and engaging with each other on digital platforms. A certain type of problem that has been addressed involves women being targeted by online abuse, because they are seen as group members that represent their gender and characteristics related to gender. Women compared to men are more likely to be subjected to sexualised threats of violence. A committee of inquiry has recently been appointed to investigate whether offences with the motive for the act being to insult somebody on grounds of his or her gender should lead to an increased penalty value by the rule in Ch. 29, sec. 2, p. 7 of the Swedish Criminal Code (Sw. brottsbalken [1962:700]). Simultaneously the Committee will investigate if there is an actual need to include gender as a protected ground in the mentioned provision, since there is a possibility to increase the penalty value under the legislation in force due to such motive.  This essay strives to investigate how gender as a motive of crime is considered when applying the law, wherefore the current legislation will be addressed. The Committee seems to have its starting point in the rule on aggravating circumstances related to hate crime, which in its nature constitutes a part of the general hate crime legislation. Therefore, gender as a protected ground in the hate crime legislation is examined. A comparative law analysis is made to Finnish law which will include gender as a ground in a similar rule. A proposal for a directive from the European Union regarding gender-based acts is referred to, because of its impact on Swedish legislation once adopted by the European Parliament. Relevant legal literature is also of interest when answering if gender-based acts should be considered as hate crime. The protection for transgender people under hate crime legislation is briefly addressed to gain valuable insights to compare this group’s protection with cisgender persons’ current or future protection. A case study is performed with two judgments from the Courts of Appeal to discover similarities and differences between these judgements regarding the evaluation of the defendant’s motive to the crime. To not limit the sources of material a combined legal dogmatic and analytical method is applied. This method allows for the use of criminological literature and governmental manuals to answer the questions at issue. Throughout the analysis it is made clear that gender as a motive to an act, is not implemented by the courts. Furthermore, the advantages and disadvantages of a tougher legal approach, regarding gender-based acts and gender as a protected ground in the rule on aggravating circumstances related to hate crime, are discussed.  In conclusion women are far more exposed to gender-based acts in a digital environment and there are good reasons to let such motive increase the penalty value. Women as a group should be included in the rule on aggravating circumstances due to their exposure to gender-based acts. Simultaneously it is important that the Committee considers acts outside of the digital sphere, due to the general applicability of the rule. The Committee is encouraged to determine whether gender ought to be a protected ground in all hate crime legislation. / Den ökade digitaliseringen har medfört att befolkningen i stort vistas i digital miljö och interagerar med varandra på digitala plattformar. En viss problematik som har uppmärksammats är företeelsen att kvinnor blir föremål för systematiska kränkningar i digital miljö, eftersom de ses som gruppmedlemmar som representerar sitt kön och egenskaper hänförliga till könet. Kvinnor jämfört med män synes också motta bl.a. sexualiserade hot om våld i större utsträckning. En kommitté har nyligen tillsatts för att utreda om gärningar med motiv att kränka någon till följd av hans eller hennes kön ska verka straffvärdehöljande med stöd av 29 kap. 2 § 7 p. brottsbalken (1962:700). Samtidigt ska kommittén utreda om det finns ett behov att inkludera kön i straffskärpningsregeln, eftersom det enligt gällande rätt går att tillmäta ett sådant könsrelaterat motiv i straffskärpande riktning.  Uppsatsen syftar till att utreda hur kön som motiv till en gärning beaktas av rättstillämparen i dag, varför en redogörelse av gällande rätt görs. Utredningen synes utgå från straffskärpningsregeln, som till sin karaktär utgör en del av hatbrottslagstiftningen. Av denna anledning redogörs och utreds därför om kön kan utgöra en skyddad grupp inom ramen för hatbrottslagstiftningen. En rättsjämförelse görs till finsk lagstiftning som i en motsvarande hatbrottspräglad straffskärpningsregel kommer att inkludera grunden ”kön”. Även ett förslag till direktiv från Europeiska unionen utreds i fråga om könsrelaterade kränkningar eftersom detta, om det antas av Europaparlamentet, kommer att behöva harmoniseras i inhemsk strafflagstiftning. Det redogörs även för relevant juridisk litteratur för att belysa frågan om könsrelaterade gärningar kan utgöra hatbrott. Transpersoners straffrättsliga skydd i hatbrottslagstiftningen behandlas i korthet, för att kunna ge värdefulla insikter vad gäller gruppens skydd ställt mot cispersoners nuvarande eller framtida skydd. En rättsfallsstudie av två hovrättsavgöranden utförs därför för att kunna se likheter och skillnader avseende domstolarnas bedömning i fråga om motiv till gärningarna. En kombinerad rättsdogmatisk och rättsanalytisk metod används för att inte begränsa materialomfånget, utan inkluderar även viss kriminologisk litteratur och myndighetsmanualer på området för att kunna besvara frågeställningarna. I analysen konstateras att kön som motiv till en gärning inte tillmäts betydelse av domstolarna. Vidare diskuteras fördelar och nackdelar med en skärpt syn på könsrelaterade gärningar, och om grunden ”kön” ska ingå i straffskärpningsregeln som tar sikte på hatbrottsmotiv.  Slutsatsen är att kvinnor är särskilt utsatta för könsrelaterade gärningar främst i digital miljö och det finns skäl för att motivet inverkar höjande på straffvärdet. Till följd av utsattheten för könsrelaterade gärningar bör kvinnor som grupp upptas i straffskärpningsregeln, eftersom vissa företrädare utsätts för sådana gärningar till följd av sitt kön. Samtidigt är det av vikt att den svenska utredningen beaktar angrepp utanför den digitala miljön, eftersom regelns tillämpning är generell. Kommittén uppmanas även att utröna om ”kön” ska ingå i all hatbrottslagstiftning.

Im Faltblatt werden staatliche Angebote für kommunale Amts- und Mandatsträger vorgestellt, die in besonderen Sicherheitsfragen in Anspruch genommen werden können. Redaktionsschluss: 13.10.2023

Denna studie utforskar orsakerna till hatbrott, särskilt bland unga i Malmö, med hjälp av ett kvalitativt tillvägagångssätt. Tre unga individer med personlig koppling till hatbrott deltar i diskussioner om motivation, syn på offer och strategier för att bekämpa hatbrott. Strainteorin används som en av teoretisk ram för att förklara hur missnöje kan leda till avvikandebeteende, inklusive hatbrott. Resultaten pekar på negativa beteendemönster, nationalistiska tendenser och intolerans mot religioner eller etniciteter med religiös koppling som bidragande faktorer till hatbrott. Betydelsen av denna studie framhävs genom den begränsade mängden forskning i svenskt sammanhang där förövare intervjuats. / This study explores the causes of hate crimes, especially among young people in Malmö,using a qualitative approach. Three young individuals with a personal connection to hatecrime participate in discussions about motivation, views of victims and strategies to combathate crime. Strain theory is used as a theoretical framework to explain how dissatisfaction can lead to deviant behavior, including hate crimes. The results point to negative behavior patterns, nationalist tendencies and intolerance towards religions or ethnicities with areligious connection as contributing factors to hate crimes. The importance of this study is highlighted by the limited amount of research in a Swedish context where perpetrators havebeen interviewed.