En esta tesis se analizan aspectos relacionados con exámenes de segundas lenguas de alto impacto (high-stakes). A diferencia de estudios anteriores, se trata de un trabajo de investigación comparativo que toma como referencia los contrastes y las similitudes que existen entre la PAU española y el sistema inglés de exámenes A-levels en relación a distintos aspectos. Por un lado, se presenta el tema desde una perspectiva histórica de la evolución de los exámenes de acceso a la universidad en cada país. Por otro, se hace un análisis en profundidad de aspectos clave de la evaluación como la validez del constructo, las características de las actividades o ítems y la fiabilidad. El contraste entre dos realidades evaluadoras diferentes nos permite ilustrar los desaciertos del sistema español mediante una evaluación de los éxitos relativos al procedimiento de evaluación pre-universitario inglés. Además, al comparar la naturaleza de la prueba en España con un equivalente europeo, se pretende comprender la manera en la que la PAU puede ser mejorada en el futuro. Finalmente, en esta tesis presentamos una propuesta de cambios fundamentales y viables para la prueba de inglés en la PAU actual. / López Navas, MD. (2012). COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TWO FOREIGN LANGUAGE EXAMINATIONS FOR UNIVERSITY ENTRY IN ENGLAND AND SPAIN [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/18055

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Les enjeux liés aux politiques éducatives ont considérablement changé au cours des dernières décennies. Ces changements sont liés, entre autres, à l’accroissement de l’imputabilité et de la reddition de compte qui est devenue une caractéristique importante des réformes curriculaires et pédagogiques. Les politiques à enjeux élevés exercent une pression énorme sur les districts et les écoles états-unienne afin qu’ils augmentent le rendement des élèves en utilisant des systèmes de conséquences (Hall & Ryan, 2011; Loeb & Strunk, 2007). Ces politiques envoient de puissants messages sur l'importance de certaines matières scolaires au détriment d'autres - circonscrivant les exigences en termes de compétences et de connaissances. La langue maternelle d’enseignement et les mathématiques sont devenues des mesures centrales sur lesquelles reposent l’évaluation et le degré de performance des districts et des écoles. Conséquemment, les administrateurs de districts et les directions d’écoles ont souvent recours à des réformes curriculaires et pédagogiques comme moyen d'augmenter le rendement des élèves dans les matières scolaires visées par ces politiques. Les politiques contraignent les acteurs scolaires de concentrer les ressources sur les programmes curriculaires et les évaluations, le développement professionnel, et la prise de décision pilotée par les données (Anagnostopoulos & Ruthledge, 2007; Honig & Hatch, 2004; Spillane, Diamond, et al., 2002; Weitz White & Rosenbaum, 2008). Cette thèse examine la manière dont les politiques à enjeux élevés opèrent quotidiennement dans les interactions et les pratiques au sein des écoles. Nous analysons plus particulièrement les différents messages provenant de la politique transmis aux acteurs scolaires sur les manières d'apporter des changements substantiels dans le curriculum et l'enseignement. Nous élargissons l’analyse en prenant en compte le rôle des administrateurs de district ainsi que des partenaires universitaires qui façonnent également la manière dont certains aspects des messages provenant des politiques sont transmis, négociés et/ou débattus et d’autres sont ignorés (Coburn & Woulfin, 2012). En utilisant l’analyse de discours, nous examinons le rôle du langage comme constituant et médiateur des interactions sociales entre les acteurs scolaires et d’autres parties prenantes. De telles analyses impliquent une investigation approfondie d’un nombre d’étude de cas limité. Les données utilisées dans cette thèse ont été colligées dans une école primaire états-unienne du mid-West. Cette étude de cas fait partie d’une étude longitudinale de quatre ans qui comprenait huit écoles dans les milieux urbains entre 1999 et 2003 (Distributed Leadership Studies, http://www.distributedleadership.org). La base de données analysée inclut des observations de réunions formelles et des entrevues auprès des administrateurs du district, des partenaires universitaires, de la direction d’école et des enseignants. En plus de l’introduction et de la problématique (chapitre 1) et de discussion et conclusion (chapitre 5), cette thèse comprend un ensemble de trois articles interdépendants. Dans le premier article (chapitre 2), nous effectuons une recension des écrits portant sur le domaine de l’implantation de politiques (policy implementation) et la complexité des relations locales, nationales et internationales dans les systèmes éducatifs. Pour démystifier cette complexité, nous portons une attention particulière à la construction de sens des acteurs scolaires comme étant une dimension clé du processus de mise en œuvre des réformes. Dans le deuxième article (chapitre 3), nous cherchons à comprendre les processus sociaux qui façonnent les réponses stratégiques des acteurs scolaires à l’égard des politiques du district et de l’état et en lien avec la mise en œuvre d’un curriculum prescrit en mathématiques. Plus particulièrement, nous explorons les différentes situations dans lesquelles les acteurs scolaires argumentent au sujet des changements curriculaires et pédagogiques proposés par les administrateurs de district et des partenaires universitaires afin d’augmenter les résultats scolaires en mathématiques dans une école à faible performance. Dans le troisième article (chapitre 4), nous cherchons à démystifier les complexités liées à l’amélioration de l’enseignement dans un environnement de politiques à enjeux élevés. Pour ce faire, nous utilisons l'interaction entre les notions d'agentivité et la structure afin d'analyser la manière dont les conceptions d’imputabilité et les idées qui découlent de l'environnement politique et les activités quotidiennes jouent dans les interactions entre les acteurs scolaires concernant sur l’enseignement de la langue maternelle. Nous explorons trois objectifs spécifiques : 1) la manière dont les politiques à enjeux élevés façonnent les éléments de l’enseignement qui sont reproduits et ceux qui sont transformés au fil du temps ; 2) la manière dont la compréhension des leaders de l’imputabilité façonne les aspects des messages politiques que les acteurs scolaires remarquent à travers les interactions et les conversations et 3) la manière les acteurs scolaires portent une attention particulière à certaines messages au détriment d’autres. Dans le dernier chapitre de cette thèse, nous discutons les forces et les limites de l’analyse secondaire de données qualitatives, les implications des résultats pour le domaine d’études de l’implantation de politiques et les pistes futures de recherches. / Issues related to instructional policy have significantly shifted in recent decades, as increased accountability has become a prominent feature of curricular reforms. High stakes policies exert tremendous pressure on districts and schools to improve student performance through incentive systems (Hall & Ryan, 2011; Loeb & Strunk, 2007). These policies send powerful messages about the importance of some subject matters over others – circumscribing skill and knowledge requirements. Literacy and mathematics, in particular, have become central measures by which districts and schools are assessed for their performance level. As a result, district officials and school leaders often employ curricular reform initiatives as a means to raise students’ performance in the subject matters targeted by such policies. Policy thus compels school actors to focus resources on curriculum and assessments, professional development, and data-driven decision-making (Anagnostopoulos & Ruthledge, 2007; Honig & Hatch, 2004; Spillane, Diamond, et al., 2002; Weitz White & Rosenbaum, 2008). This dissertation examines how high stakes policy operates in everyday interactions and practices in schools. More specifically, I analyze the different policy messages conveyed to school leaders and teachers about the ways to bring about substantial changes in curriculum and instruction. I expand the analysis by taking into account the role of district leaders and university partners in shaping which aspects of policy messages are being conveyed, negotiated and/or debated, and the ones that are ignored (Coburn & Woulfin, 2012). Using discourse analysis, I investigate the role of language as constitutive and a medium of school leaders’ and teachers’ social interactions with different stakeholders. Such analyses imply an in-depth investigation of a limited number of cases. The data for this dissertation were gathered in one elementary school in a mid-West state of the USA, as part of a larger four year longitudinal study that was carried out from 1999 to 2003 (Distributed Leadership Studies, http://www.distributedleadership.org). The dataset I analyzed includes observations of formal meetings –faculty meetings, professional development activities– as well as interviews with district administrators, university partners, school leaders and teachers. In addition to the introduction/problem statement (chapter 1) and the discussion/conclusion chapter, this dissertation comprises a set of three interrelated, yet independent articles. In the first article (chapter 2), I provide a theoretical and empirical framework on policy implementation and the complexity of local, national, and global interrelationships at play in educational systems. To disentangle this complexity, I pay close attention to school actors’ sense-making as one key dimension of the implementation process of reform initiatives. In the second article (chapter 3), I aim to better understand the social processes that shape school actors’ strategic responses to high stake state and district policies in regards to a mandated curriculum and instruction in mathematics. More specifically, I explore different situations where school leaders and teachers argued about the instructional changes proposed by district leaders and university partners in order to raise test scores in mathematics in a low-performing school. In the third article (chapter 4), to disentangle the complexities of instructional improvement in a high stakes policy environment, I use the interplay of agency and structure to analyze how accountability assumptions and ideas from the policy environment and the day-to-day activities play out in interactions among school leaders and teachers about reading instruction. I explore 1) how high stakes policy shapes which elements of instruction are reproduced and which ones are transformed over time; and 2) how leaders’ understandings of accountability shape which aspects of policy school actors notice through interactions and conversations and how they attend to some policy messages while ignoring others. In the last chapter of the dissertation, I discuss the strengths and limitations of secondary analysis of qualitative data, the implications of the findings for the policy implementation field and future research avenues.

Durant les deux dernières décennies, la pression à l’évaluation chiffrée, dans le système éducatif québécois, s’est grandement intensifiée. Cette pression a provoqué un accroissement du nombre d’évaluations chiffrées dans les écoles, entrainant dans son sillage des dérives au plan de la pratique comme le gonflement artificiel des notes des élèves pour satisfaire les cibles du Ministère de l’Éducation en matière de réussite. La pression prend de l’ampleur à la fin du primaire, au moment où les élèves de 6e année doivent opérer le passage vers le secondaire. Dans la foulée, la performance scolaire traduite par la note chiffrée représente un critère de choix pour sélectionner les élèves dans certains établissements privés d’enseignement réputés pour leur « excellence ». Dans ce contexte, l’évaluation chiffrée est devenue un enjeu sociopolitique. À ce jour, la recherche a surtout documenté les impacts psychologiques de la pression à l’évaluation chiffrée sur le travail d’enseignant·e·s (stress, anxiété, fatigue, abandon) ; peu d’attention a été portée à la manière dont les enseignant·e·s s’ajustent pour composer avec ce contexte. Ainsi, ce mémoire vise à comprendre comment des enseignant·e·s de 6e année du primaire s’adaptent face à la pression à l’évaluation chiffrée des apprentissages des élèves québécois. Plus précisément, il documente les formes d’adaptations secondaires que les enseignant·e·s déploient pour négocier les contraintes institutionnelles et les conventions professionnelles qui se construisent autour de l’évaluation chiffrée des apprentissages. La théorie de Perrenoud (2004b) sur le « métier d’élève » est ici transposée au « métier d’enseignant » afin d’éclairer ces adaptations secondaires. Sur le plan méthodologique, le point de vue des enseignant·e·s a été privilégié, recueilli au moyen d’entretiens individuels conduits auprès de 4 enseignantes de 6e année travaillant dans des établissements d’enseignement primaire de Montréal et de Laval. Les données recueillies sont présentées suivant deux registres d’analyse. Dans le premier registre, le matériau de recherche est analysé selon le point de vue des participantes à partir d’une stratégie de raisonnement par questionnement analytique (Paillé et Mucchielli (2016). Il en ressort trois catégories d’adaptations secondaires que les enseignantes ont développées pour s’affranchir un peu de l’influence externe qui pèse sur leur travail, à savoir : l’allègement des tâches d’évaluation, l’alignement des modalités d’évaluation et l’ajustement de l’évaluation selon une commande externe. Dans le deuxième registre, en cohérence avec la démarche inductive employée, un éclairage complémentaire est mobilisé pour donner sens à la dynamique d’actions réciproques entre les acteurs qui sous-tend ces stratégies d’adaptation. Il s’agit de la théorie de la régulation sociale de Reynaud (1979), issue de la sociologie des organisations. Combinée aux apports d’autres auteurs affiliés à une perspective interactionniste, cette théorie conduit à éclairer la fabrique de l’évaluation par la mise en relief de trois stratégies de régulation : la régulation de contrôle, la régulation autonome et la régulation conjointe. / Over the past two decades, high-stakes testing has been on the rise in Quebec’s educational system. This pressure provoked an increase in the number of quantitative assessments in schools, leading to some dubious practices such as test score inflation in order to meet the achievement standards established by the Ministry of Education. The pressure is particularly high during the last year of primary education (6th grade) as test scores constitute a key selection criterion for admission into certain private secondary schools known for their “excellence”. In this context, quantitative assessment has become a socio-political issue. To date, research has mainly documented the psychological impacts of high-stakes testing on teachers (stress, anxiety, fatigue, attrition); whilst less attention has been paid to the ways in which teachers adapt to this context. Thus, this research aims to understand how the pressure to increase quantitative assessment affects the teaching profession in Quebec. Precisely, it documents the forms of secondary adaptations that teachers deploy to negotiate institutional constraints and professional agreements concerning the quantitative assessment of learning. Perrenoud's theory (2004b) on “studenting” is transposed to “teachers’ work” to shed light on these secondary adaptations. Methodologically, teachers’ perspectives were foregrounded through individual interviews with four sixth grade teachers working in Montreal and Laval. The data collected are presented using two levels of analysis. At the first level, the data were analyzed from the point of view of the participants, by following an analytical questioning reasoning strategy (Paillé & Mucchielli, 2016). Three categories of secondary adaptations that teachers developed to cope with the external influence that weighs on their work, are identified namely: simplifying evaluation tasks, aligning evaluation methods, and adjusting grades according to an external command. At the second level, the inductive approach adopted at the outset of this research led to mobilizing a complementary perspective drawn from organizational sociology, i.e. Reynaud’s theory of social regulation (1979). Together with other works within an interactionist perspective, this level of analysis helps explain the production of evaluation by highlighting three regulatory strategies: controlled regulation, autonomous regulation, and joint regulation.

This master thesis focuses on enhancing the user interface experience for Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C) system operators in a military context. Collaborating with Saab, a defense sector company, the study employs the research through design and a user-centered design approach to investigate user needs and how they interact with the interface. The research reveals that despite the unique nature of the defense industry, operators respond poorly to a difficult-to-use interface, leading to frustration and underutilization of functionalities. The study identifies contextual factors such as information overload, user interface design and personalization, task difficulty and lack of help systems, stress, and cognitive load. Through the development and testing of a new interface prototype, incorporating design feedback sessions and iterations, the thesis addresses these contextual demands. The findings highlight the significance of introducing user experience in military environments, where complex system engineering and functionality have been traditionally preferred over simplicity and usability.

The intent of this study was to investigate changes in the curriculum caused by high-stakes testing mandates within 3 Southwest Virginia school systems to find best practices for instructional application in classrooms. This qualitative study was comprised of indepth interviews and observations with elementary school teachers and administrators. High-stakes testing has impacted the nation in myriad ways. The mandates from the government presented teachers and administrators with conditions that must be met according to the No Child Left Behind Act and individual state's standards. Teachers' perceptions of curriculum changes, Developmentally Appropriate Practices (DAP), testing mandates according to high-stakes testing, and accountability were examined through personal interviews and classroom observations. This study focused on policies and practices of esteemed teachers' creative abilities as they adhered to mandates and captivated students' abilities to perform in the classroom. Teachers and administrators shared their feelings and perceptions regarding new policies and how they made changes within the classrooms and school systems. The findings indicated that the most prevalent ideas concerning teachers and administrators developed into the patterns: educators' level of satisfaction, students' stress, school changes, and our future. Educators' level of satisfaction was the most frequent theme that demonstrated high-stakes testing affected their overall happiness level. The research reflected that educators were negatively affected by high-stakes testing. Constructive ideas were identified as to how they maintained creativity within the classroom that could inspire critical thinking. A model was developed to demonstrate the findings for best instructional practices for teaching high-stakes standards in the classroom. This research should add to existing research in this area and provide information that other educators might apply to their own classroom or educational environment. The participants in this study were the change agents, and their attitudes regarding the changes affected the decisions they made with the school curriculum.

The current research study investigates the predictive value of two frequently-used benchmark reading assessments: Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA) and the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS). With an increasing emphasis on high-stakes testing to measure reading proficiency, benchmark assessments may assist in predicting end-of-year performance on high-stakes testing. Utah's high-stakes measurement of end-of-year reading achievement is the English Language Arts Criterion-Referenced Test (ELA-CRT). A Utah urban school district provided data for students who completed the DRA, DIBELS, and ELA-CRT in the 2005-2006 school year. The primary purpose of the study was to determine the accuracy to which the Fall administrations of the DRA and the DIBELS predicted performance on the ELA-CRT. Supplementary analysis also included cross-sectional data for the DIBELS. Results indicated that both Fall administrations of the DRA and the DIBELS were statistically significant in predicting performance on the ELA-CRT. Students who were high risk on the benchmark assessments were less likely to score proficiently on the ELA-CRT. Also, demographic factors did not appear to affect individual performance on the ELA-CRT. Important implications include the utility of data collected from benchmark assessments to address immediate interventions for students at risk of failing end-of-year, high-stakes testing.

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Since the implementation and achievement score pressures of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, elective course offerings such as music have been drastically reduced, especially in the middle school setting. A great deal of correlational research has shown a positive correlation between music education in school and students’ overall academic achievement. This study examined the correlation between those middle school students that participated in the District Concert Band Music Performance Assessment (MPA) versus those middle school students that did not regarding their achievement scores on the 2016 English language arts (ELA) and mathematics subtests of the Florida Standards Assessments (FSA). The theoretical framework of this study was undergirded by Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. The researcher used a non-experimental ex post facto research design for the collection of the study’s data. The results indicated that there was a positive, statistically significant difference between both the ELA and mathematics achievement scores of those students that participated in the MPA and those that did not. There was also a positive, statistically significant difference between both the ELA and mathematics achievement scores of those students that participated in the MPA and the level of music their band performed. However, there was not a statistically significant difference between both the ELA and mathematics achievement scores of those students that performed at the MPA and the final overall rating that their band received. School administrators are charged with the responsibility of ensuring that effective programs are instituted in their schools so their students can be successful. The results of this quantitative non-experimental ex post facto study could provide administrators additional research-based evidence suggesting that band on the middle-school level, which is a branch of music education, could be a program to include in the school’s curriculum because it might positively contribute to the school’s ELA and mathematics achievement and academic culture. Additional research can also be conducted to observe the effects of music study on student achievement for students of all grade levels and socioeconomics. This would lead school administrators to continue practicing the notion of educating the whole child while making administrative decisions, which should be the sine qua non of education.

Questa ricerca presenta una panoramica introduttiva delle principali variabili (storiche, sociali, economiche, istituzionali, culturali, ideologiche e valoriali) che condizionano il policy-making educativo degli Stati Uniti e descrive le riforme e innovazioni più significative introdotte negli ultimi trent’anni nel sistema scolastico americano. Quali fattori socio-culturali, urgenze storiche, azioni e convinzioni politiche stanno alla base delle riforme in atto? Come stanno mutando gli equilibri di potere fra governo federale, stati membri e autorità locale e quali sono le ricadute di questo riallineamento sulla governance scolastica? L’approccio seguito per esaminare le principali riforme ed innovazioni (dal movimento per gli standard comuni, al collegamento fra i test scolastici e accountability per i risultati, alle charter school) è quello proprio della policy research, disciplina pressoché sconosciuta a quanti s’interessano di problematiche pedagogiche in Italia ma che può arricchire la capacità di lettura e comprensione di molte questioni dibattute quando si parla di riforme dell’istruzione. / this research provides a comprehensive introduction to the field of education policies in the United States. Blending together theoretical analysis and practical examples, it examines the main variables (history, economy, demographics, political structures, ideologies, values, political culture) that influence the policy environment. What social and economic needs does the U.S. education system cater to? What sociocultural factors, pressing historical circumstances, political choices and actions and beliefs (independent) underlie the current education reforms? What are the implications of the shift of power over education policy from the school and local levels to the federal and state levels? Current issues such as charter schools, high-stakes testing, standards-based reform, and school choice are analyzed in retrospective and perspective using a policy research approach to public problems and policy alternatives. Almost unknown to Italian educational experts, particularly in academia, policy research can expand our general understanding and knowledge about problems and choices when education reform is under discussion.