This works presents a comparative analysis of heterosemantic words from portuguese and spanish. The research was motivated as a result of observing either the change or the displacement of meaning which occurs in substantially similar words in both languages, as well as by observing their relative frequency both in texts and in the (spoken / written) productions of natives and students of a foreign language. The main inquiry specifically turns to a lexical-semantic problem. Namely, what would probably be the reasons for a semantic discrepancy between two substantially identical words in genetically related languages? Is the problem of divergence in the meaning of these lexemes specifically semantic or do other linguistic levels imbricate? Do these lexemes comprise any kind of semantic or of meaning relations, which explains this phenomenon? If so, how does this relation occur either in both languages or in one of them in particular? Thus, this work intends to comparatively describe these lexemes by classifying and analysing them through semantic relations of polysemy and homonymy, and also identify the reasons for their change or displacement of meaning. The corpus of analyses is constituted of paired portuguese and spanish lexical words, phonetically or graphically similar, which are considered as being heterosemantic for their similarity on the expression level (sound) and different on the contents level (meaning). The etymology of these words is described as well their primary and secondary meanings, which, in turn, are exemplified by sentences observed in the formal and informal use of language, spoken or written, which are found in books, texts and dictionaries, as well as in the speakers spontaneous utterances of these languages. The work presents an eminently explanatory character toward the treatment of data, basically under a diachronic and structuralist perspective, since it turns to historical and etymological aspects, by making explicit the reasons of the changes or displacement of meaning. It is also intended with this work, to have this semantic divergence explained through the semantic relations of polysemy and homonymy. On one hand, the work is theoretically founded on the postulates of the Applied Linguistics, focalizing at the interference/interlanguage notion and at the delimitation and classification of heterosemantics. On the other hand, it searches the General Linguistics and the Semantic Linguistics when specifically dealing with lexical-semantic matters in the light of the semantic line referred to as pre-Structuralist, preconized by Saussure , and in the discussions by Ullmann, Guiraud, Lyons. The linguistic sign and its nature, the arbitrariness and mutability, the linguistic value, the semantic relations of polysemy and homonymy are, among other topics discussed. Thus, from the comparative analysis of data, the heterosemantics are classified in: homonymous and polysemics, which are divided into four sub-groups stemmed from distinct linguistic processes. In summary, the true heterosemantics (the homonymous ones) arise from phonetic evolution, or from semantic divergences in their origin; the accidental heterosemantics (the polysemic ones) become as they are from semantic evolution, displacement of meaning, or distinct semantic features. Portuguese is also thought to have more motivated lexemes than spanish, for the degree of arbitrariness and motivation is different in both languages; although the confronted languages have a number of cognates in common, it is also confirmed that they become heterosemantic, because of semantic displacement or changes which have occurred in each language in particular. / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Este trabalho apresenta uma análise comparativa de palavras heterossemânticas do português e do espanhol. A pesquisa foi motivada face à observação da mudança ou deslocamento de sentido ocorrido em palavras substancialmente semelhantes nas duas línguas, e sua relativa freqüência em textos, e em produções (falada ou escrita) de nativos e aprendizes de uma língua estrangeira. O questionamento principal volta-se especificamente para um problema léxico-semântico. Isto é, quais seriam as possíveis causas para a divergência semântica entre duas palavras substancialmente idênticas em línguas geneticamente relacionadas? O problema da divergência de sentidos nesses lexemas é especificamente semântico ou outros níveis lingüísticos se imbricam? Há algum tipo de relação semântica ou de significado nesses lexemas que explique esse fenômeno? Se há, como essa relação ocorre nas duas línguas, e/ou em cada língua particular? Assim, procura-se descrever comparativamente esses lexemas classificando-os e analisando-os através das relações semânticas de polissemia e homonímia, e identificar as causas que promovem a mudança ou o deslocamento de sentido neles. O corpus constitui-se de pares de palavras lexicais do português e do espanhol semelhantes fonética ou graficamente, e consideradas heterossemânticas por serem semelhantes no plano da expressão (som) e divergentes no plano do conteúdo (significado). Descreve-se sua etimologia, seus sentidos primários e secundários, exemplificando cada um dos sentidos com sentenças observadas no uso formal e informal da língua, escrito ou falado, presentes em livros, textos e dicionários, e ainda no uso espontâneo de informantes dessas línguas. O trabalho apresenta um carácter eminentemente explicativo quanto ao tratamento dos dados, diante de uma perspectiva, basicamente, diacrônica e estruturalista pois volta-se para aspectos históricos e etimológicos, explicitando as causas das mudanças ou deslocamento de sentido. Procura-se comprovar também que essa divergência semântica pode ser explicada através das relações semânticas de polissemia e homonímia. Fundamenta-se, teoricamente, por um lado, nos postulados da Lingüística Aplicada, visando à questão da interferência/interlíngua, à delimitação e classificação dos heterossemânticos. Por outro lado, ao tratar especificamente sobre as questões léxico-semânticas, recorre-se à Lingüística Geral e à Semântica Lingüística, dentro da linha semântica denominada pré-Estruturalista preconizada por Saussure, e em discussões de Ullmann, Guiraud, Lyons. Discute-se sobre o signo lingüístico e sua natureza, sobre arbitrariedade e mutabilidade, valor lingüístico, sobre as relações semânticas de polissemia e homonímia, as causas de mudanças ou deslocamento de sentido, e outras questões que envolvem o problema. Assim, da análise comparativa dos dados, classificam-se os heterossemânticos em: homônimos e polissêmicos, e estes, em quatro subgrupos advindos de processos lingüísticos distintos. Em síntese, os heterossemânticos propriamente ditos (homônimos) surgem por evolução fonética, ou por divergências semânticas na origem ou base; os heterossemânticos acidentais (polissêmicos) tornam-se tais por evolução semântica, deslocamento de sentido, ou traços semânticos distintos. Acredita-se também que o português possui mais lexemas motivados do que os mesmos do espanhol, pois o grau de arbitrariedade e motivação é diferente em ambas; confirma-se ainda que apesar de as línguas confrontadas terem inúmeros cognatos entre si, os mesmos tornam-se heterossemânticos, devido ao deslocamento ou mudanças semânticas ocorridos em cada língua particularmente.

Thesis (MA (Afrikaans Language))--University of Stellenbosch, 1990. / 199 leaves single sided printed, preliminary pages and numbered pages 1-187. Includes bibliography. Digitized using a Bizhub 250 Scanner to pdf format (OCR). / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: An evaluation of semantic information in a dictionary must take into account all aspects of meaning of lexical items. Therefore the different homonyms and polysemous senses of lexical items and the underlying semantic relations between lexical items are accounted for. A description should be given of the lexical items which form the macrostructure of HAT. These lexical items include sublexical, multilexical and free lexical items. The treatment of multilexical items in HAT is not satisfactory at present and suggestions are made for the improvement of the situation. Possible solutions for distinguishing between homonymy and polysemy are given. Suggestions to determine the possible polysemous senses of a lexical item are also made. The ordering of polysemous senses and different homonyms are discussed. It is essential to make use of a synchronic criterion to distinguish between homonymy and polysemy. The HAT's treatment of semantic relations between lexical items is not always very succesfull. The semantic relation which receives the most substantial treatment is that of semantic inclusion between lexical items. The HAT's treatment of synonyms is not without problems. More attention should be given to semantic linking and semantic opposition between lexical items. An evaluation of the system of cross-references in HAT is given, with special reference to the function of cross-references. Sometimes indistinct typographical conventions are used and they confuse the user of the dictionary. The indistinct use of typographical conventions has a detrimental influence on the transfer of information. The cross-reference system of HAT can be improved by an informative explanation in the general introduction, focusing on ways and means to use it more specifically, unambiguously and consistently. A distinction is made between various types of definitions used to define lemmas. Well known lexicographic definitions such as definitions per genus et differentia, synonymdefinitions, example definitions, circular definitions and descriptive definitions are discussed. The usage definition and two definitions which explicate a semantic plus value, the contrast and diminutive definitions, are identified. Attention is also given to the role of the general introduction in a standard synchronic dictionary. Suggestions are made to improve the general introduction of HAT. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Wanneer semantiese inligting in 'n woordeboek ondersoek word, word alle aspekte van leksikale items se betekenis in ag geneem. Dit sluit homonimiese vorme en polisemiese onderskeidinge van leksikale items in, asook die semantiese betrekkinge wat leksikale items onderling met mekaar aangaan. Die leksikale items wat die makrostruktuur van die HAT vorm, word beskryf. Dit sluit subleksikale, multileksikale en vrye leksikale items in. Verskillende tipes multileksikale en subleksikale items word onderskei. Tans word multileksikale items in HAT nie na wense hanteer nie en voorstelle word aan die hand gedoen hoe die stelsel verbeter kan word. Moontlike oplossings vir die onderskeidingsprobleem tussen homonimie en polisemie, asook maniere waarop 'n leksikale item se polisemiese onderskeidinge vasgestel kan word, word verskaf. Aandag word ook aan die ordening van polisemiese onderskeidinge en homonimiese vorme gegee. Dit is belangrik dat 'n sinchroniese maatstaf gebruik word om tussen homonimie en polisemie te onderskei. Semantiese betrekkinge tussen leksikale items word met 'n wisselende mate van sukses deur HAT hanteer. Semantiese insluiting tussen leksikale items word die meeste beskryf. Daar bestaan egter probleme by die hantering van sinonimie tussen leksikale items. Semantiese aansluiting tussen leksikale items word min deur die woordeboek aangedui. Semantiese opposisie tussen leksikale items kan ook meer deur die HAT aangedui word. Die kruisverwysingstelsel van die HAT word ondersoek. Funksies van kruisverwysings word beskryf. Kruisverwysings word wel deur die HAT redaksie gebruik, maar hulle kan nog meer gebruik word. Soms word onduidelike tipografiese konvensies gebruik en dit het swak inligtingsoordrag tot gevolg. Die kruisverwysingstelsel van die HAT kan verbeter word deur dit in die toeligtende aantekeninge te verduidelik, spesifiek en ondubbelsinnig toe te pas en deur dit konsekwent te gebruik. Verskillende tipes definisies waarmee leksikale items gedefinieer word, word onderskei. Bekende leksikografiese definisies soos genus-differentia-definisies, sinoniemdefinisies, voorbeelddefinisies, sirkeldefinisies en deskriptiewe definisies word bespreek. Die gebruiksdefinisie en twee definsies wat semantiese pluswaardes ekspliseer, naamlik die teenstellingsdefinisie en die verkleiningsdefinisie,word geidentifiseer. Die rol van toeligtende aantekeninge in 'n handwoordeboek word bespreek. Daar word gewys op die swak toeligtende aantekeninge van die HAT. Voorstelle word gedoen oor hoe die hantering van semantiese inligting in die toeligtende aantekeninge verduidelik moet.

The goal of this thesis is to map a theme, which has not been systematically explored enough by Czech linguists so far. It deals with the material of the Prague Spoken Corpus (PSC), which contains a series of records of authentic spoken language. The thesis presents primarily a comprehensive description of particles, which can be found in the PSC, their semantic classes based on their real occurrence in the natural speech context. It further describes their collocability and syntagmatic relations, including their valency, thus more adequately explains their function in the commonly spoken language. Attention is also paid to their frequency and preferred use within the scope of particular combinations of sociolinguistic parameters, i.e. four variables (sex, age, education and type of discourse) which determined the selection of speakers on recordings to make their combinations as balanced as possible. Some particles are homonymous with other parts of speech - the extent of homonymy and its context dependency just as the processes of particulization are described in the contextual usage of particles and adverbs. The results in terms of the frequency of usage were compared with the frequency of occurrence in the written corpus SYN2005. The presentation of particles in dictionaries of Czech language was...

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Είναι γνωστό ότι η άνοια σχετίζεται με την απώλεια μνήμης, έκπτωση γλωσσικών ικανοτήτων, έλλειψη αυτονομίας και απώλεια της προσωπικής ταυτότητας του ασθενούς. Στόχος της παρούσας εργασίας είναι να αναδείξει τη σχέση αμφισημίας- άνοιας και να διερευνηθεί η σκοπιμότητα ύπαρξης ενός μεθοδολογικού εργαλείου για την εκτίμηση και τη διερεύνηση της γλωσσικής έκπτωσης στη άνοια μέσα από την γλωσσική επεξεργασία των λεξικών σχέσεων (μεταφορών –ομωνυμίας- μετωνυμιών) και να παρουσιάζει το προφίλ των ασθενών αυτών. Στην πρώτη ενότητα παρουσιάζω γενικά στοιχεία για την νόσο της άνοιας αλλά και στοιχεία για τους κυριότερους τύπους της νόσου όσον αφορά την γλωσσική συμπεριφορά των ασθενών. Στην ενότητα αυτή αναφέρω επίσης βασικά διαγνωστικά εργαλεία που χρησιμοποιούνται ευρέως για τον προσδιορισμό της νόσου, ενώ αναλυτικότερα στοιχεία για τα εργαλεία που χρησιμοποιούνται και τις δομές που εξετάζουν παρατίθενται στο παράρτημα. Κλείνοντας την ενότητα καταλήγω στα οφέλη και την αναγκαιότητα ύπαρξης πρώιμης διάγνωσης. Στην δεύτερη ενότητα αναφέρομαι κυρίως στο νοητικό λεξικό και στην δυσκολία πρόσβασης των ασθενών με πιθανή άνοια σε αυτό. Επιπλέον υπάρχουν στοιχεία για την λεξική κατάκτηση, επιλογή και ανάκτηση των πληροφοριών και φαίνεται η σχέση νοητικού λεξικού – αμφισημίας. Στην τρίτη ενότητα παρουσιάζω το φαινόμενο της αμφισημίας από την θεωρητική άποψη αρχικά της γλωσσολογίας, πως κατακτώνται οι αμφίσημες λέξεις και επεξεργάζονται σε σχέση με την ηλικία και καταλήγω στην νευρική συσχέτιση των λεξικών αμφισημιών με συγκεκριμένες εγκεφαλικές περιοχές. Στο τέλος της παρούσας ενότητας παρουσιάζω ευρήματα/ συμπεράσματα από πλήθος ερευνών που αφορούν την λεξική αμφισημία με διαφορετικές μεθόδους για κάθε τύπο άνοιας. Στην τελευταία ενότητα παρουσιάζω τις βασικές υποθέσεις μου πως η χρήση των λεξικών σχέσεων θα μπορεί να αποτελέσει διαγνωστικό εργαλείο στην άνοια. Επίσης παρουσιάζω την κατασκευή και τα αποτελέσματα της πειραματικής διαδικασίας ανάμεσα σε τέσσερα διαφορετικά υποκείμενα (πασχόντων –υγειών) διαφορετικής παθολογίας και σοβαρότητας. Ακολουθεί τέλος το παράρτημα με στοιχεία που αφορούν την διαφοροδιάγνωση της νόσου βάσει αλγορίθμων με τα γνωστικά ελλείμματα όπως παρουσιάζονται από τους φροντιστές των ασθενών αλλά και παθολογικών συμπτωμάτων που παρουσιάζουν, ενώ σε πίνακα υπάρχουν τα γλωσσικά στοιχεία που βοηθούν επίσης στην διαφοροδιάγνωση των κυριότερων τύπων άνοιας και τα αποτελέσματα της πειραματικής διαδικασίας. / It is well known that dementia is associated with memory loss, impaired language skills, lack of autonomy and loss of patients’ independence. The aim of this paper is to highlight the connection between ambiguity and dementia, and to investigate the feasibility of a methodological tool to assess and investigate the linguistic deduction in dementia through the linguistic processing of lexical relations (metaphor-homonymy-metonymy) and present the profile of such patients. In the first section I present general information as well as the linguistic features of the main types of dementia. In this section there is also a report on the diagnostic tools which are widely used to identify the disease. More detailed information about the use of these diagnostic tools is listed in the Annex. At the end of this section there is evidence about the benefits and the importance of early diagnosis. The second section is mainly referred to the mental lexicon and the difficulty patients with probable dementia face in accessing it. Furthermore there is evidence for lexical acquisition, selection and retrieval of information which shows the mental lexicon – ambiguity connection. In the third section I present the phenomenon of ambiguity, starting from the theoretical linguistic view; how the ambiguous words are conquered and processed in relation to age and lead to neural correlation of lexical ambiguity with specific brain regions. At the end of this section I present findings / conclusions of several researches, using different methods, on the lexical ambiguity on each type of dementia. The last section presents my basic assumptions concerning how the use of lexical relations can be a diagnostic tool in dementia. Furthermore, I present the construction and the results of the experimental process between four different subjects (patient-healthy) with different pathology and severity of the disease. Finally, at the annex, I present data on the differential diagnosis of the disease based on algorithms with cognitive deficits reported by caregivers of patients as well as pathology features. Also there is a board with differential linguistic elements which help distinguish the main types of dementia, along with the experimental material used and the results of the procedure.

Forming teacher teams is currently the standard way of organizing teachers in Swedish Compulsory Schools. This is the result of a process that started in the 1970s. Traditionally the culture of teaching has been one of isolation. Once the door to the classroom is shut, what happens behind the door is up to the teacher to decide. Over the past thirty years a lot of time has been dedicated to making fundamental changes in the way teachers interact with their colleagues. Today the idea of teachers forming teams is generally accepted but still the core of a Swedish teacher’s job is that of a lone worker. The purpose of this paper is to study how the role of the teacher has been defined in the Swedish curricula of 1962, 1980, 1994 and 2011. Of particular interest is if the teacher role is expected to be solitary or collaborative and if this has changed from the 1960s to the current curriculum of 2011. The theoretical framework consists of the frame factor theory and systemic/role theory. The curricula have been studied using a word search method, identifying sentences with the words teacher or teachers. These sentences have then been coded in different categories depending on what instructional words have used together with the word teacher/teachers. In the analysis, specific interest has been addressed to autonomous (solitary) or homonymous (collaborative) role expectations. The study shows that the teacher role has changed from one curriculum to the other. The state control of the teacher varies through the use of different instructional words. The state control has increased and is strongest in the most recent curriculum of 2011. The study also reveals the fact that Swedish curriculums never have been used to stress to collaborative aspects of being a teacher but rather to stress solitary role expectations. / Syftet med denna studie är att studera hur lärarrollen har definierats och förändrats i grundskolans läroplaner mellan 1962-2011, med fokus på två olika sätt att se på lärarens uppdrag; läraren som ensam styrare av verksamheten i klassrummet eller lärarlag som utövar en viss grad av kollektiv styrning. Frågeställningarna i studien är; Hur har lärarens uppdrag formulerats i läroplanerna? Förväntas läraren utföra sitt uppdrag ensam eller tillsammans med andra lärare? Organisationsteori är utgångspunkten för forskningsintresset och det är inom denna sektor som studiens resultat kan vara av praktisk nytta. Studien fokuserar på läroplanerna och de rollförväntningar som beskrivs i dessa. Rollteori/systemteori ger de teoretiska begreppen och är utgångspunkten för analysen. Studien har en kvalitativ ansats men en viss kvantitativ bearbetning av data förekommer. Ett urval av data har gjorts från läroplanerna LGR 62, LGR 80, Lpo 94 samt LGR 11. Vid urvalet har selektiv kodning använts med utgångspunkt i kärnkategorin läraren/lärarna. Nästa kategorisering har varit vilka instruktionsord som kopplas samman med kärnkategorin. I analysmomentet har särskilt intresse riktats mot autonoma rollförväntningar (individuella roller) eller homonoma rollförväntningar (samarbetsroller). Studien visar att formuleringen av lärarens uppdrag förändrats från en läroplan till en annan. Statens styrning har förändrats genom användandet av olika slags instruktionsord. Vad man väljer att styra hårdare har varierat. Den senaste läroplanen LGR 11 innehåller också den starkaste styrningen genom ett konsekvent användande av instruktionen läraren ska. Studien visar också att läroplanerna aldrig i någon högre grad har använts för att formulera ett kollektivt uppdrag riktat till lärarna som grupp. De kollektiva beslutsprocesser som beskrivs är mer inriktade på att involvera eleverna i beslutsfattande. Huvudfokus i alla läroplanerna ligger på den enskilde lärarens arbete och inte på ett kollektivt utförande av uppdraget.

La thèse se répartit en deux tomes. Les quadriconsonantiques forment deux groupes de radicaux distincts, à savoir : les radicaux de forme ABAB et les radicaux de forme ABCD. L’analyse de ces radicaux, en appliquant la TME (Théorie, Matrice, Etymon) élaborée par G. Bohas, permet de définir leur fonctionnement aux plans sémantique, sémantico phonétique et structurel. La première partie Tome 1 analyse les quadriconsonantiques de forme ABAB. La deuxième partie Tome 2 est consacrée aux quadriconsonantiques de forme ABCD.Concernant les radicaux ABAB, dont la structure est issue d’un redoublement de l’unique étymon AB, le travail d’analyse va plus s’orienter sur la sémantique. Il est démontré que le redoublement ne s’accompagne pas d’une modification sémantique systématique, contrairement à ce que l’on observe dans les parlers d’orient et d’occident.La deuxième partie de la thèse, Tome 2, dans les mêmes conditions que précédemment, étudie les radicaux ABCD dans le cadre de la TME en prenant en compte la contrainte phonétique formulée par Angoujard (1997), notée : CPA. L’objectif est de déterminer leur mode de fonctionnement tant sur le plan structurel que sur le plan sémantico phonétique. L’étude de ces radicaux ABCD ne se limite pas uniquement à montrer le fonctionnement structurel des radicaux mais établit une relation entre la TME de Bohas et la CPA d’Angoujard. / The thesis is divided into two volumes. Quadri-consonant groups form two distinct sets of radicals: ABAB and ABCD pattern radicals. Applying the Theory of Matrices and Etymons (TME) elaborated by Georges Bohas to the analysis of these radicals enables their functioning at the semantic, semantic-phonetic and structural levels to be defined.The first part which constitutes Volume 1 consists in the analysis of ABAB pattern quadric-consonant groups while the second part contained in Volume 2 is devoted to ABCD pattern quadric-consonant groups. In the study of the ABAB pattern radicals, the structure of which is the result of a reduplication of the single AB etymon, the analytical work focuses more on semantics. The analysis demonstrates that reduplication is not accompanied by a systematic semantic modification, contrary to what may be observed in eastern and western dialects.Under the same conditions, the second part of the thesis, Volume 2, consists in a study of ABCD pattern radicals which employs the framework of TME while also taking into consideration the phonetic constraints formulated by Angoujard (1997): CPA. The objective is to determine the modes of functioning of the ABCD pattern radicals on both the structural and semantic-phonetic levels. The study of these ABCD pattern radicals is not merely restricted to demonstrating the structural functioning of these radicals but also establishes a relationship between TME elaborated by Bohas and Angoujard’s CPA.