Pour augmenter l'affinité des anticorps sécrétés en réponse à un antigène, les gènes d'immunoglobulines subissent l'hypermutation somatique, une mutagénèse adaptative initiée par l'action de l'activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID). L'uracile provenant de la désamination des cytosines par cette enzyme est réparé de façon erronée par la suite : si il est pris en charge par l'uracile N-glycosylase (UNG), enzyme à l'origine d'une réparation poursuivie habituellement par des composantes de la voie du "base-excision repair", il reste à sa place un site abasique franchissable par les ADN polymérases translésionnelles avec un taux d'erreur très élevé. Si le mésappariement U:G est reconnu par la voie du " mismatch repair ", le brin d'ADN entourant le U est dégradé puis néo-synthétisé par une autre ADN polymérase translésionnelle particulièrement mutagène en face des bases T et A, la polymérase eta. Nous avons proposé que le choix entre ces deux voies de réparation mutagènes puisse être régulé en fonction du cycle cellulaire: les mutations des paires A:T seraient introduites dans les gènes d'immunoglobulines par la voie du mismatch repair en phase G1 alors que la voie erronée d'UN introduirait les autres mutations lors de la phase S. Nous sommes parvenus à restreindre l'activité de l'AID à deux parties distinctes du cycle, la phase G1 ou les phases S/G2/M, et nous avons établi le fonctionnement de ce système dans le modèle murin. De façon surprenante, nous avons détecté un taux de mutation proche du bruit de fond chez toutes les souris dont l'AID opérait uniquement dans les phases S/G2/M. Par contre, les souris dont l'AID a été restreinte en G1 présentaient un spectre de mutation diversifié sur les quatre bases et similaire au normal. A la lumière de ces résultats, nous proposons que les lésions introduites tout au long du cycle par l'AID soient diversifiées par les acteurs de l'hypermutation somatique pendant la phase G1, alors que les lésions seraient soit réparées de façon fidèle en dehors de cette phase-là, soit de faible impact. Afin d'expliquer le biais de brin dans l'hypermutation somatique observé pour les mutations sur les bases A :T, nous proposons pour l'ADN polymérase eta un rôle inhabituel de réparation du brin portant la " lésion ", et non de synthèse translésionnelle classique en face de cette lésion. Nous avons analysé le profil, le taux et la distribution des mutations introduites par Pol eta sur un oligonucléotide cible pour l'hypermutation, qui a été inséré au locus des immunoglobulines et utilisé pour l'établissement des souris knock-in avec un fond génétique déficient ou non en UNG. Nos résultats, selon lesquels Pol eta continue de cibler le brin codant indépendamment de la localisation des " points d'entrée " en forme d'uraciles, contredisent les rapports déjà publiés sur ce sujet. De façon inattendue, nos résultats mettent en évidence une coopération entre les voies UNG et et les activités endonucléasique du mismatch repair, fournissant la cassure simple brin qui va permettre d'initier la resynthèse à fort taux d'erreur à l'origine de la mutagénèse A/T. Ces résultats résolvent aussi le paradoxe de la non-participation apparente du complexe effecteur du mismatch repair (Mlh1/Pms2) dans le processus d'hypermutation, en proposant qu'il fonctionne en redondance avec UNG, dans une distribution des tâches qui dépend du contexte de la séquence ciblée et de la densité du processus de deamination.

Le choléra est une infection diarrhéique aiguë qui représente encore aujourd’hui un grave problème de santé publique dans les pays où l’accès à l’eau potable et un système d’assainissement adéquat ne peut pas être garanti. Vibrio cholerae, le pathogène bactérien responsable de cette maladie, peut provoquer toute une série de symptômes chez les individus infectés, allant d’une diarrhée intense conduisant à une déshydratation sévère, au portage asymptomatique de la bactérie. Bien que notre compréhension du choléra à une échelle macro-épidémiologique a considérablement été améliorée par le développement des techniques de séquençage à haut débit et par les avancées dans le domaine de la génomique bactérienne, aucune étude n’a encore été menée pour caractériser son évolution à l’échelle des individus infectés. De plus, le rôle des porteurs asymptomatiques au sein d’une épidémie et la raison derrière l’absence de symptômes chez ces individus infectés sont encore méconnus. L’objectif principal de cette thèse est donc de (1) caractériser la diversité génomique de V. cholerae au niveau des individus et des cercles familiaux, mais aussi (2) d’évaluer le rôle potentiel du microbiome intestinal dans la susceptibilité de contracter cette maladie entérique aiguë et de présenter des symptômes sévères. Dans un premier temps, nous caractérisons la diversité génomique de colonies isolées à partir de patients symptomatiques. Le séquençage de génomes entiers de souches provenant de patients du Bangladesh et d’Haïti révèle que cette diversité sous la forme de mutations ponctuelles reste limitée, mais détectable au sein des hôtes. Une grande partie de la variation du contenu génétique semble être surtout due au gain et à la perte de phages et de plasmides au sein de la population de V. cholerae, avec des échanges occasionnels entre le pathogène et d’autres membres commensaux du microbiote intestinal. Cela contredit l’hypothèse couramment acceptée que les infections par V. cholerae sont majoritairement clonales, et confirme que le transfert horizontal de gènes est un facteur important dans l’évolution de V. cholerae. De plus, nos résultats montrent que certains de ces variants peuvent avoir un effet phénotypique, impactant par exemple la formation de biofilms, et peuvent être sélectionnés au sein des individus infectés. Par la suite, nous appliquons une association de méthodes de séquençage de génomes entiers et de méthodes métagénomiques afin d’améliorer la détection des variants intra-hôte, à la fois chez des patients symptomatiques, mais aussi chez des porteurs asymptomatiques. Notre étude montre que l’approche métagénomique offre une meilleure résolution dans la détection de la diversité dans la population microbienne, mais reste difficile à appliquer chez des patients asymptomatiques, en raison du faible nombre de cellules de V. cholerae chez ces patients. Dans l’ensemble, nous constatons que le niveau de diversité au sein de la population bactérienne intra-hôte est similaire entre les patients symptomatiques et asymptomatiques. Nous détectons aussi la présence de souches hypermutantes chez certains patients. De plus, alors que les mutations chez les patients porteurs de phénotypes d’hypermutations ne semblent pas sous l’effet de la sélection, des signes d'évolution parallèle sont détectés chez les patients présentant un plus faible nombre de mutations, suggérant des mécanismes d’adaptation au sein de l’hôte. Nos résultats soulignent la puissance de la métagénomique combinée au séquençage de génomes entiers pour caractériser la diversité intra-hôte dans le cas d’une infection aiguë du choléra, mais aussi dans le cas de portage asymptomatique, tout en identifiant pour la première fois le phénotype d’hypermutation chez des patients infectés. Finalement, nous nous intéressons aux facteurs liés à la susceptibilité à la maladie et à la sévérité des symptômes. Basée sur une étude récente utilisant le séquençage 16S pour montrer le lien potentiel entre le microbiome intestinal et la susceptibilité à l’infection par V. cholerae, nos analyses utilisent les méthodes de séquençage métagénomique sur les mêmes échantillons de cette précédente étude afin de caractériser les profils taxonomiques et fonctionnels du microbiome intestinal de contacts familiaux exposés à V. cholerae. Les échantillons sont prélevés avant l’infection de ces contacts familiaux et l’apparition ou non de symptômes, et sont analysés pour identifier des prédicteurs à la maladie symptomatique. Grâce à un algorithme d’apprentissage machine, nous pouvons identifier des espèces, des familles de gènes et des voies métaboliques du microbiome au moment de l'exposition à V. cholerae pour détecter des biomarqueurs potentiels corrélés avec les risques d'infection et la gravité des symptômes. Nos résultats montrent que l’utilisation du séquençage métagénomique améliore la précision et l’exactitude des prévisions par rapport au séquençage 16S. Nos analyses permettent aussi de prédire la gravité de la maladie, bien qu’avec une plus grande incertitude que la prédiction de l’infection. Des taxons bactériens des genres Prevotella et Bifidobacterium ont été identifiées comme des marqueurs potentiels de protection contre l’infection, tout comme gènes impliqués dans le métabolisme du fer. Nos résultats soulignent le pouvoir de la métagénomique pour prédire l’évolution des maladies et identifient des espèces et des gènes spécifiques pouvant être impliqués dans des tests expérimentaux afin d’étudier les mécanismes liés au microbiome intestinal expliquant la potentielle protection contre le choléra. / Cholera is an acute diarrhoeal disease that remains a global threat to public health in countries where access to safe water and adequate sanitation cannot be guaranteed. Vibrio cholerae, the bacterial pathogen responsible for this disease, can cause a range of symptoms in infected individuals, from intense diarrhea leading to severe dehydration, to asymptomatic carriage of the bacteria. Although our understanding of cholera on a macro-epidemiological scale has been considerably improved by the development of high-throughput sequencing techniques and by advances in bacterial genomics, no studies have yet been conducted to characterize its evolution at the scale of infected individuals. Furthermore, the role of asymptomatic carriers in an epidemic and the reason behind the absence of symptoms in these infected individuals remains unknown. The main objective of this thesis is therefore to characterize the genomic diversity of V. cholerae at the level of individuals and households, but also to evaluate the potential role of the gut microbiome in the susceptibility to contract this acute enteric disease and to present severe symptoms. First, we characterize the genomic diversity of colonies isolated from symptomatic patients. The whole genome sequencing of strains from patients in Bangladesh and Haiti reveals that this diversity is detectable in the form of point mutations within hosts, but remains limited. Much of the variation detected within patients appears to be due to the gain and loss of phages and plasmids within the V. cholerae population, with occasional exchanges between the pathogen and other commensal members of the gut microbiota. These results challenge the commonly accepted assumption that V. cholerae infections are predominantly clonal, and confirm that horizontal gene transfer is an important factor in the evolution of V. cholerae. In addition, our results show that some of these variants may also have a phenotypic effect, for example by impacting biofilm formation, and can be selected within infected individuals. Next, we apply a combination of whole genome sequencing and metagenomic approaches to improve the detection of intra-host variants, both in symptomatic patients and in asymptomatic carriers. Our study shows that the metagenomic approach offers a better resolution in the detection of the diversity in the microbial population, but remains difficult to apply in asymptomatic patients, due to the low number of V. cholerae cells in these individuals. Overall, we find that the level of diversity within the intra-host bacterial population is similar between symptomatic and asymptomatic patients. We also detect the presence of hypermutator strains in some patients. In addition, while mutations in patients with hypermutator phenotypes did not appear to be driven by selection, signs of parallel evolution are detected in patients with fewer mutations, suggesting adaptive mechanisms within the host. Our results underline the power of metagenomics combined with whole genome sequencing to characterize intra-host diversity in acute cholera infection, but also in asymptomatic carriers, while identifying for the first time an hypermutator phenotype in infected patients. Finally, we are interested in factors related to susceptibility to the disease and related to the severity of symptoms. Based on a recent study using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing to show the potential link between the intestinal microbiome and susceptibility to V. cholerae infection, our study uses metagenomic sequencing methods on the same samples from this previous study to characterize the taxonomic and functional profiles of the gut microbiome of household contacts exposed to V. cholerae. Samples are collected prior to infection of these household contacts, and used to identify predictors of symptomatic disease. Using a machine learning algorithm, we can identify species, gene families and metabolic pathways in the microbiome at the time of exposure to V. cholerae to detect potential biomarkers correlated with risk of infection and symptom severity. Our results show that the use of metagenomic sequencing improves the precision and accuracy of predictions compared to 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. Our analyses also predict disease severity, although with greater uncertainty than the prediction of infection. Bacterial taxa from the genera Prevotella and Bifidobacterium have been identified as potential markers of protection against infection, as well as genes involved in iron metabolism. Our results highlight the power of metagenomics to predict disease progression and identify specific species and genes that could be involved in experimental tests to study the mechanisms related to the microbiome explaining potential protection against cholera.

La protéine AID (déaminase induite par l’activation) joue un rôle central dans la réponse immunitaire adaptative. En désaminant des désoxycytidines en désoxyuridines au niveau des gènes immunoglobulines, elle initie l’hypermutation somatique (SHM), la conversion génique (iGC) et la commutation isotypique (CSR). Elle est essentielle à une réponse humorale efficace en contribuant à la maturation de l’affinité des anticorps et au changement de classe isotypique. Cependant, son activité mutagénique peut être oncogénique et causer une instabilité génomique propice au développement de cancers et de maladies autoimmunes. Il est donc critique de réguler AID, en particulier ses niveaux protéiques, pour générer une réponse immunitaire efficace tout en minimisant les risques de cancer et d’autoimmunité. Un élément de régulation est le fait qu’AID transite du cytoplasme vers le noyau mais reste majoritairement cytoplasmique à l’équilibre. AID est par ailleurs plus stable dans le cytoplasme que dans le noyau, ce qui contribue à réduire sa présence à proximité de l’ADN. Le but de cette thèse était d’identifier de nouveaux partenaires et déterminants d’AID régulant sa stabilité et ses fonctions biologiques. Dans un premier temps, nous avons identifié AID comme une nouvelle protéine cliente d’HSP90. Nous avons montré qu’HSP90 interagit avec AID dans le cytoplasme, ce qui empêche la poly-ubiquitination d’AID et sa dégradation par le protéasome. En conséquence, l’inhibition d’HSP90 résulte en une diminution significative des niveaux endogènes d’AID et corrèle avec une réduction proportionnelle de ses fonctions biologiques dans la diversification des anticorps mais aussi dans l’introduction de mutations aberrantes. Dans un second temps, nous avons montré que l’étape initiale dans la stabilisation d’AID par la voie de chaperonnage d’HSP90 dépend d’HSP40 et d’HSP70. En particulier, la protéine DnaJa1, qui fait partie de la famille des protéines HSP40s, limite la stabilisation d’AID dans le cytoplasme. La farnésylation de DnaJa1 est importante pour l’interaction entre DnaJa1 et AID et moduler les niveaux de DnaJa1 ou son état de farnésylation impacte à la fois les niveaux endogènes d’AID mais aussi la diversification des anticorps. Les souris DNAJA1-/- présentent une réponse immunitaire compromise en cas d’immunisation, qui est dûe à des niveaux réduits d’AID et un défaut de commutation de classe. Dans un troisième temps, nous avons montré que la protéine AID est intrinsèquement plus instable que sesprotéines paralogues APOBEC. Nous avons identifié l’acide aspartique en seconde position d’AID ainsi qu’un motif semblable au PEST comme des modulateurs de la stabilité d’AID. La modification de ces motifs augmente la stabilité d’AID et résulte en une diversification des anticorps plus efficace. En conclusion, l’instabilité intrinsèque d’AID est un élément de régulation de la diversification des anticorps. Cette instabilité est en partie compensée dans le cytoplasme par l’action protective de la voie de chaperonnage DnaJa1-HSP90. Par ailleurs, l’utilisation d’inhibiteurs d’HSP90 ou de farnésyltransférases pourrait être un outil intéressant pour la modulation indirecte des niveaux d’AID et le traitement de lymphomes/leucémies et de maladies auto-immunes causés par AID. / Activation induced deaminase (AID) plays a central role in adaptive immunity. AID deaminates deoxycytidine to deoxyuridine in defined regions of the immunoglobulin (Ig) genes and initiates somatic hypermutation (SHM), gene conversion (iGC) and class switch recombination (CSR). While being essential for an effective immune response by underpinning antibody affinity maturation and isotype switching, the mutagenic activity of AID can also be oncogenic and causes genomic instability leading to the development of cancer, or exacerbate autoimmune diseases. Therefore, AID regulation, including the control of its protein level, is central to balancing effective immunity with cancer/autoimmunity. Notably, AID shuttles between the cytoplasm and the nucleus but is predominantly cytoplasmic at steady-state, with cytoplasmic AID being much more stable than nuclear AID. These regulatory steps contribute to limit the exposure of the genome to AID but their mechanisms are unknown. This thesis aimed at identifying AID partners and intrinsic determinants regulating its stability and modulating its biological functions. Firstly, we identified AID as a novel HSP90 client protein. We demonstrated that HSP90 interacts with AID in the cytoplasm and prevents its polyubiquitination and subsequent proteasomal degradation. Consequently, HSP90 inhibition results in a significant reduction of endogenous AID levels and correlates with a proportional reduction in both AID-mediated antibody diversification and off-target mutations. Secondly, we showed that the first step in the HSP90 molecular chaperoning pathway and stabilization is the interaction of AID with the HSP40 and HSP70 system. In fact, a specific HSP40 protein, DnaJa1, is the limiting step in cytoplasmic AID stabilization. DnaJa1 farnesylation is required for DnaJa1-AID interaction and modulation of DnaJa1 levels or its farnesylation impacts endogenous AID levels and antibody diversification. In vivo, DnaJa1- deficient mice display compromized response to immunization, resulting from reduced AID protein levels and isotype switching. Thirdly, we found that AID is intrinsically less stable than its APOBEC paralogs. We identified the AID N-terminal aspartic acid residue at position two and an internal PEST-like motif as destabilizing modulators of AID protein turnover. Disruption of these motifs increases AID protein stability and antibody diversification.We conclude that AID’s intrinsic instability directly contributes to regulating antibody diversification. This intrinsic instability is at least partially compensated for in the cytoplasm by the protective action of the DnaJa1-HSP90 molecular chaperoning pathway. Pharmacologically targeting AID in an indirect way, by using HSP90 or farnesyltransferase inhibitors, could be relevant for treating some AID-associated lymphomas/leukemias and/or autoimmune diseases.

No description available.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Univ., 2004. / Härtill 5 uppsatser.

Follicular dendritic cells (FDCs) reside in primary B-cell follicles and in the light zones of germinal centers (GCs) in secondary follicles, where their dendrites interdigitate forming extensive networks intimately interacting with B-cells. In GCs, FDCs can be found at the edges attached to the supporting reticular fibers. They trap and arrange immune complexes (ICs) in vivo and in vitro in a periodic manner with 200–500Å spacing and provide both antigen-specific and non-specific accessory signals to B-cells. FDCs exist in resting and activated states, with two characteristically different phenotypes. In their activated state, FDCs upregulate the expression of accessory molecules and cytokines important in the FDC-B cell interaction in GCs. We sought to determine the mechanisms influencing the transition of FDCs from a resting to an activated state in GCs and their impact on T-cell dependent (TD) and independent (TI)-GC reactions (GCRs). We found that IC-FDC interactions via FDC-FcgammaRIIB induce the upregulation of FDC-FcgammaRIIB, -ICAM-1, and -VCAM-1, at both the protein and mRNA levels. We also reported for the first time the expression of TLR-4 on FDCs. Moreover, engagement of FDC-TLR4 with LPS activated NF-kappaB, up-regulated expression of important FDC-accessory molecules, including FcgammaRIIB, ICAM-1, and VCAM-1, and enhanced FDC accessory activity in promoting recall IgG responses. Moreover, IC-activated FDCs produced IL-6 and FDC-IL-6 promoted GCRs, somatic hypermutation (SHM) and IgG production. Further, we reported that binding of FDCs to collagen coated surfaces induced restoration of their dendritic processes and networks in vitro. In addition, we designed an FDC-supported in vitro model capable of induction and assessment of primary human antibody responses to protein antigens characterized by class-switching and affinity maturation. Uniquely, we generated TI immune responses to TD protein Ags in the complete absence of T cell help in vivo and in vitro. In the presence of FDC-associated second signals such as BAFF and C4BP, FDC- FcgammaRIIB-periodically trapped-ICs induced the production of Ag-specific IgM, GC-development and plasmablast-differentiation in anti-Thy-1-pretreated nude mice. Purified murine and human B cells cultured in vitro with IC-bearing FDCs also showed the production of antigen–specific IgM within just 48 h.

A via de Reparo por Excisão de Nucleotídeos (NER) é responsável pelo reparo das lesões causadas pela luz ultravioleta (UV) e de outras lesões capazes de distorcer a dupla hélice, bloqueando a replicação e a transcrição. Os pacientes que apresentam as síndromes recessivas raras Xeroderma Pigmentosum (XP), tricotiodistrofia (TTD) e síndrome de Cockayne (CS) possuem mutações em algum dos 11 genes relacionados ao NER e à transcrição basal. Mutações na proteína XPD levam ao surgimento de diferentes fenótipos: XP, TTD, XP/CS ou COFS (Cerebro-Oculo-Facio-Skeletal Syndrome), uma forma rara de CS. Os pacientes XP apresentam alta incidência de câncer de pele, o que não ocorre com os pacientes TTD e CS, além de poderem apresentar perda neuronal progressiva, enquanto todos os CS e TTD apresentam uma diminuição na mielinização do cérebro. As neuropatologias são provavelmente associadas a problemas no reparo de danos endógenos no DNA das células nervosas. Diversos trabalhos mostraram o envolvimento do NER no reparo desses danos, os quais pensava-se serem reparados apenas por outro mecanismo, o Reparo por Excisão de Base. Neste trabalho mostramos que fibroblastos de pacientes XP-D, XP-D/CS e TTD, portadores de mutações em XPD, são sensíveis ao estresse oxidativo induzido pelo tratamento com azul de metileno fotoativado, apresentando bloqueio prolongado no ciclo celular e permanência da sinalização de danos ao DNA. A complementação das diferentes linhagens com o gene XPD/ERCC2 foi capaz de restaurar a sobrevivência celular. Foram detectadas diferenças importantes na capacidade de reparo/retomada da transcrição após danos gerados por estresse oxidativo em DNA plasmidial, além da ativação de vias diferentes de morte celular: fibroblastos XP-D apresentam maior capacidade de reparo e apresentam morte por apoptose após estresse oxidativo, enquanto os fibroblastos XP-D/CS e TTD apresentam menor capacidade de reparo ativação de mais de uma via de morte celular (apoptose e necrose), diferenças que podem estar ligadas ao fenótipo dos pacientes. Mutações no gene codificante para a DNA polimerase n, POLH, estão associadas à forma variante de XP (XP-V). Pol n é uma polimerase especializada na síntese translesão (TLS) de fotoprodutos, além de estar implicada na TLS de outros tipos de lesões como bases oxidadas, e em vias não relacionadas à TLS como a hipermutação somática e à replicação de regiões de DNA com arquiteturas não-canônicas. Neste trabalho mostramos que os fibroblastos de pacientes XP-V apresentam sensibilidade ao estresse oxidativo. Mostramos uma indução da proteína pol n em fibroblastos primários após danos genotóxicos, associada ao aumento da capacidade de lidar com a parada na forquilha de replicação, possibilitando a continuidade da replicação do DNA e ao aumento da sobrevivência celular. Mostramos uma diferença na estabilidade genômica nos genes das imunoglobulinas dos pacientes XP-V idosos em comparação com os pacientes jovens e controles de idade pareada, mostrando que a ausência dessa polimerase pode estar ligada ao aumento da instabilidade genômica nesses genes / The Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER) pathway is responsible for the repair of UV photoproducts and other bulky lesions that block both replication and transcription. Patients with the rare recessive disorders Xeroderma Pigmentosum (XP), trichothiodystrophy (TTD) and Cockayne Syndrome (CS) carry mutations in one of the 11 NER genes, linked to repair and basal transcription. Mutations in XPD lead to different phenotypes: XP, TTD, XP/CS or COFS (Cerebro-Oculo-Facio-Skeletal Syndrome), a rare form of CS. XP patients have high incidence of skin cancer, which does not occur in TTD or CS patients, although ther may present neurodegeneration, while all CS and TTD patients have neurodevelopmental symptoms linked to dysmielynation. The pathology of these neurological diseases is probably associated with deficient repair of DNA lesions in nervous cells, generated by endogenous processes. Many groups including ours have demonstrated the involvement of NER in the repair of these lesions, previously thought to be exclusively repaired by Base Excision Repair. In this work we show high sensitivity of both primary and transformed XP-D, XP-D/CS and TTD human fibroblasts in response to oxidative stress generated by photoactivated methylene blue, with prolonged cell cycle arrest and DNA damage signaling. The complementation of the three different cell lines with the XPD/ERCC2 gene was able to restore cell survival. We detected important differences in repair capacity/transcription resumption after damage generated by oxidative stress in plasmid DNA, besides the activation of different cell death pathways: XP-D cells have higher repair capacity and die by apoptosis, while XP-D/CS and TTD cells have little repair capacity and activate more than one death pathway (apoptosis and necrosis). We believe these differences can be related to the patients\' phenotypes. Mutations in DNA polymerase n coding gene, POLH, are associated with the variant form of XP (XP-V). Pol n is a translesion synthesis (TLS) polymerase specialized in the TLS past CPD photoproducts, besides other lesions like oxidized bases, and in other processes like somatic hypermutation and DNA replication in structured regions. In this work we show XP-V human fibroblasts are sensitive to oxidative stress. We detected an induction of pol n after genotoxic stress in primary cells, associated with increased ability to deal with the stalled replication fork, and consequently to DNA replication restart and cell survival. In addition, we detected a difference in genomic stability in immunoglobulin genes in aged XP-V patients in comparison to both young patients and age-matched controls, showing the absence of this polymerase may be linked to increased genomic instability in these genes

A via de Reparo por Excisão de Nucleotídeos (NER) é responsável pelo reparo das lesões causadas pela luz ultravioleta (UV) e de outras lesões capazes de distorcer a dupla hélice, bloqueando a replicação e a transcrição. Os pacientes que apresentam as síndromes recessivas raras Xeroderma Pigmentosum (XP), tricotiodistrofia (TTD) e síndrome de Cockayne (CS) possuem mutações em algum dos 11 genes relacionados ao NER e à transcrição basal. Mutações na proteína XPD levam ao surgimento de diferentes fenótipos: XP, TTD, XP/CS ou COFS (Cerebro-Oculo-Facio-Skeletal Syndrome), uma forma rara de CS. Os pacientes XP apresentam alta incidência de câncer de pele, o que não ocorre com os pacientes TTD e CS, além de poderem apresentar perda neuronal progressiva, enquanto todos os CS e TTD apresentam uma diminuição na mielinização do cérebro. As neuropatologias são provavelmente associadas a problemas no reparo de danos endógenos no DNA das células nervosas. Diversos trabalhos mostraram o envolvimento do NER no reparo desses danos, os quais pensava-se serem reparados apenas por outro mecanismo, o Reparo por Excisão de Base. Neste trabalho mostramos que fibroblastos de pacientes XP-D, XP-D/CS e TTD, portadores de mutações em XPD, são sensíveis ao estresse oxidativo induzido pelo tratamento com azul de metileno fotoativado, apresentando bloqueio prolongado no ciclo celular e permanência da sinalização de danos ao DNA. A complementação das diferentes linhagens com o gene XPD/ERCC2 foi capaz de restaurar a sobrevivência celular. Foram detectadas diferenças importantes na capacidade de reparo/retomada da transcrição após danos gerados por estresse oxidativo em DNA plasmidial, além da ativação de vias diferentes de morte celular: fibroblastos XP-D apresentam maior capacidade de reparo e apresentam morte por apoptose após estresse oxidativo, enquanto os fibroblastos XP-D/CS e TTD apresentam menor capacidade de reparo ativação de mais de uma via de morte celular (apoptose e necrose), diferenças que podem estar ligadas ao fenótipo dos pacientes. Mutações no gene codificante para a DNA polimerase n, POLH, estão associadas à forma variante de XP (XP-V). Pol n é uma polimerase especializada na síntese translesão (TLS) de fotoprodutos, além de estar implicada na TLS de outros tipos de lesões como bases oxidadas, e em vias não relacionadas à TLS como a hipermutação somática e à replicação de regiões de DNA com arquiteturas não-canônicas. Neste trabalho mostramos que os fibroblastos de pacientes XP-V apresentam sensibilidade ao estresse oxidativo. Mostramos uma indução da proteína pol n em fibroblastos primários após danos genotóxicos, associada ao aumento da capacidade de lidar com a parada na forquilha de replicação, possibilitando a continuidade da replicação do DNA e ao aumento da sobrevivência celular. Mostramos uma diferença na estabilidade genômica nos genes das imunoglobulinas dos pacientes XP-V idosos em comparação com os pacientes jovens e controles de idade pareada, mostrando que a ausência dessa polimerase pode estar ligada ao aumento da instabilidade genômica nesses genes / The Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER) pathway is responsible for the repair of UV photoproducts and other bulky lesions that block both replication and transcription. Patients with the rare recessive disorders Xeroderma Pigmentosum (XP), trichothiodystrophy (TTD) and Cockayne Syndrome (CS) carry mutations in one of the 11 NER genes, linked to repair and basal transcription. Mutations in XPD lead to different phenotypes: XP, TTD, XP/CS or COFS (Cerebro-Oculo-Facio-Skeletal Syndrome), a rare form of CS. XP patients have high incidence of skin cancer, which does not occur in TTD or CS patients, although ther may present neurodegeneration, while all CS and TTD patients have neurodevelopmental symptoms linked to dysmielynation. The pathology of these neurological diseases is probably associated with deficient repair of DNA lesions in nervous cells, generated by endogenous processes. Many groups including ours have demonstrated the involvement of NER in the repair of these lesions, previously thought to be exclusively repaired by Base Excision Repair. In this work we show high sensitivity of both primary and transformed XP-D, XP-D/CS and TTD human fibroblasts in response to oxidative stress generated by photoactivated methylene blue, with prolonged cell cycle arrest and DNA damage signaling. The complementation of the three different cell lines with the XPD/ERCC2 gene was able to restore cell survival. We detected important differences in repair capacity/transcription resumption after damage generated by oxidative stress in plasmid DNA, besides the activation of different cell death pathways: XP-D cells have higher repair capacity and die by apoptosis, while XP-D/CS and TTD cells have little repair capacity and activate more than one death pathway (apoptosis and necrosis). We believe these differences can be related to the patients\' phenotypes. Mutations in DNA polymerase n coding gene, POLH, are associated with the variant form of XP (XP-V). Pol n is a translesion synthesis (TLS) polymerase specialized in the TLS past CPD photoproducts, besides other lesions like oxidized bases, and in other processes like somatic hypermutation and DNA replication in structured regions. In this work we show XP-V human fibroblasts are sensitive to oxidative stress. We detected an induction of pol n after genotoxic stress in primary cells, associated with increased ability to deal with the stalled replication fork, and consequently to DNA replication restart and cell survival. In addition, we detected a difference in genomic stability in immunoglobulin genes in aged XP-V patients in comparison to both young patients and age-matched controls, showing the absence of this polymerase may be linked to increased genomic instability in these genes

APOBEC3 (A3) proteins are a family of host-encoded cytidine deaminases that protect against retroviruses and other viral intruders. Retroviruses, unlike other viruses, are able to integrate their genomic proviral DNA within hours of entering host cells. A3 proteins hinder retroviral infectivity by editing retroviral replication intermediates, as well as by inhibiting retroviral replication and integration through deamination-independent methods. These proteins thus constitute the first line of immune defense against endogenous and exogenous retroviral pathogens. The overall goal of my Master's project was to better understand the critical role A3 proteins play in restricting inter- and intra-host transmission of retroviruses. There are two specific aspects that I focused on: first, investigating the role of mouse APOBEC3 (mA3) in limiting the zoonotic transmission of murine leukemia retroviruses (MLVs) in a rural environment; second, to identify the molecular features in MLVs that confer susceptibility or resistance to deamination by mA3. For the first part of my project, we collected blood samples from dairy and production cattle from four different geographical locations across Canada. We then designed a novel PCR screening strategy targeting conserved genetic regions in MLVs and Mouse Mammary Tumor Virus (MMTV) and MMTV-like betaretroviruses. Our results indicate that 4% of animals were positive for MLV and 2% were positive for MMTV. Despite crossing the species barrier by gaining entry into bovine cells, our study also demonstrates that the bovine A3 protein is able to potently inhibit the spread of these murine retroviruses in vitro. The next question we asked was whether mA3 could also mutate and restrict murine endogenous retroviruses and thereby partake in limiting zoonotic transmission. Moloney MLV and AKV MLV are two highly homologous murine gammaretroviruses with opposite sensitivities to restriction by mA3: MoMLV is resistant to restriction and deamination while AKV is sensitive to both. Design of MoMLV/AKV hybrid viruses enabled us to map the region of mA3 resistance to the region encoding the glyco-Gag accessory protein. Site-directed mutagenesis then allowed us to correlate the number of N-linked glycosylation sites with the level of resistance to deamination by mA3. Our results suggest that Gag glycosylation is a possible viral defence mechanism that arose to counteract the evolutionary pressure imposed by mA3. Overall, my projects show the important role A3 proteins play in intrinsic immunity, whether defending the host from foreign retroviral invaders or endogenous retroviral foes.