Les polymères à empreintes moléculaires (MIP) sont des matériaux synthétiques capables de mimer les anticorps biologiques. En effet, ils possèdent deux des principales caractéristiques de ces derniers, à savoir : la capacité de reconnaître et de se lier spécifiquement à des molécules cibles. De plus, leur synthèse facile, leur bas coût de production, leur haute spécificité et stabilité par rapport aux anticorps naturels font des MIP une alternative intéressante. En effet, les propriétés de reconnaissance moléculaire des MIP permettent d'envisager leur utilisation dans une vaste gamme d’applications. Ils sont ainsi largement exploités dans les sciences séparatives pour l'analyse d'échantillons environnementaux ou agro-alimentaires, ou comme élément de reconnaissance dans des biocapteurs. Récemment, des applications de ces matériaux dans les domaines biologiques et biomédicaux ont émergé comme pour la détection, l'extraction et l"élimination de molécules indésirables dans l'organisme, la vectorisation ou l'administration contrôlée des médicaments. Dans nos recherches, nous avons développé des MIP dégradables par voie biochimique ou enzymatique, ayant une application potentielle en tant que système de libération contrôlé de molécules. En général, les MIPs sont synthétisés par polymérisation radicalaire libre en utilisant une formulation composée de monomères fonctionnels, d'agents de réticulation, et d'une molécule cible servant à réaliser l'empreinte moléculaire. Dans ce travail de thèse, nous avons utilisé pour la synthèse de MIP dégradable des agents de réticulation clivables contenant, soit une fonction chimique dégradable par voie chimique ou enzymatique (ponts disulfures et phosphatediester), soit un disaccharide issus d'agro-ressources et pouvant être naturellement hydrolysé par des enzymes. En présence d'un réactif spécifique (agent réducteur ou enzyme), les liaisons dites "sensibles" aux réactifs chimiques ou enzymatiques peuvent être clivées, ce qui entraîne une dégradation de la matrice polymérique. Le polymère perdra alors sa capacité de reconnaissance et de liaison à la molécule cible et permettra la libération de celle-ci. Nous pensons donc, que les nouveaux MIP dégradables pourraient avoir un énorme potentiel comme vecteurs "intelligents" dans des applications médicales tels que les systèmes de libération contrôlée de médicament. Finalement, nous avons étudié la dégradation par des microorganismes de la structure de base de ce type de polymères, en utilisant comme modèles des chaines linéaires et réticulées. / Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are biomimetic synthetic receptors that possess two of the most important features of biological antibodies – the ability to recognize and bind specific target molecules. Owing to their easier preparation, lower cost, higher specifity and stability compared to antibodies, they have the potential to be widely applied for environemental and food analysis. Recently, MIPs also emerged in the biochemical field as diagnostic tools, chemicals traps to remove undesirable substance from the body, or drug delivery systems, where usually the combination of biocompatibility and degradability after its use is desirable. Here, we developed biochemically or enzymatically degradable MIPs, which have potential applications as activation-modulated drug delivery systems. In general, MIPs are prepared by radical polymerization of functional monomers and cross-linkers in the presence of a target molecule acting as template. Degradable MIPs were synthesized using cleavable cross-linkers containing a degradable group (disulfide bond or phosphate ester bond) or derived from a natural disaccharide. In the presence of a cleaving reagent (reducing agent or enzyme), the chemo or enzyme-sensitive bond could be cleaved, resulting in the degradation of the polymer matrix. The degraded polymers looses the binding sites structure resulting in the loss of recognition and binding capacity towards the target molecules, and thus in the release of bound molecules. These degradable MIPs provide new opportunities as “smart” vectors for controlled delivery of active molecules in biomedical applications. Finally, the biodegradation of the polymer backbone by bacteria was investigated.

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Cette thèse décrit le développement de capteurs à fibre optique hautement sélectifs, utilisant des polymères à empreintes moléculaires (MIPs, de l’anglais molecularly imprinted polymers) comme éléments de reconnaissance, et se basant sur la fluorescence pour la détection. Nous avons étendu l’étude à d’autres types de capteurs et de méthodes de détection optiques, toujours basés sur les MIPs. Les MIPs sont des récepteurs synthétiques biomimétiques possédant des cavités spécifiques pour une molécule cible. Produits par un processus de moulage à l’échelle moléculaire, les MIPs sont capables de reconnaître et de se lier à leurs molécules cibles, avec des spécificités et affinités comparables aux récepteurs naturels. De plus, comparé aux récepteurs biologiques, les MIPs sont plus stables, moins chers et plus faciles à intégrer dans les procédés standard industriels de fabrication. Ainsi, les MIPs apparaissent comme une alternative intéressante aux biomolécules entant qu’éléments de reconnaissance dans les biocapteurs. Dans la première partie de la thèse (Chapitre 2), les MIPs ont été synthétisés en tant que micropointe à l’extrémité d’une fibre optique, par polymérisation in-situ induite par un laser en seulement quelques secondes. Les paramètres photoniques et physico-chimiques ont été optimisés pour moduler les propriétés des micro-objets de polymères. Des nanoparticules d’or ont été incorporées dans la micropointe de MIP afin d’induire une exaltation du signal. Afin de prouver l’efficacité de notre capteur, les études initiales ont été réalisées avec un MIP synthétisé avec le Ncarbobenzyloxy- L-phenylalanine (Z-L-Phe) comme template et le dérivé d’acide aminé fluorescentdansyl-L-phenylalanine, comme analyte. La fluorescence a été collectée de l’extérieur au niveau de la micropointe par une fibre optique connectée à un spectrofluorimètre, ou par collection du signal fluorescent ré-émis dans l’un des bras d’une fibre bifurquée en Y. L’analyse fluorescent a pu être détecté à des concentrations de l’ordre du nM. Afin de quantifier les analytes non fluorescents, un monomère fluorescent, possédant un groupe naphthalimide, a été incorporé dans le MIP ; celui-çidéployant une augmentation de la fluorescence quand l’analyte se lie. Utilisant ce système avec un MIP spécifique pour l’herbicide 2,4-D (acide 2,4-dichlorophénoxyacétique), des concentrations aussi basses que 2,5 nM en 2,4-D ont pu être mesurées. Le capteur MIP a également été appliqué à des analytes d’intérêt pour la sécurité alimentaire et le domaine nanostructurées. Cette étude pose les bases pour le développement futur de nanocapteurs et de Dans la dernière partie (Chapitre 4), une méthode d’analyse novatrice, basée sur l’utilisation des MIPs et l’analyse par polarisation de fluorescence, a été développée en vue de permettre la quantification directe et rapide d’analytes dans des échantillons alimentaires et environnementaux. Cette technique a été appliquée avec succès pour détecter des antibiotiques fluoroquinolones dans l’eau du robinet et le lait, en-dessous de leur limite maximale de résidus. En conclusion, nous pouvons dire que ce travail ouvre la voie vers l'application d'une nouvelle génération de capteurs optiques portables, robustes et miniaturisables basés sur les MIPs, pour des mesures «sur-site » et la quantification en temps réel d’analytes biologiques et environnementaux dans des milieux complexes. / This thesis describes the development of highly selective fiber optic sensors using molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) as recognition elements associated with fluorescence for detection. Additionally, we extended the study to the development of other MIP-based optical sensors and sensing methods. MIPs are synthetic biomimetic receptors possessing specific cavities designed for a target molecule. Produced by a templating process at the molecular level, MIPs are capable of recognizingand binding target molecules with selectivities and affinities comparable to those of natural receptors. Compared to biological recognition elements, MIPs are more stable, cheaper and easier to integrate into standard industrial fabrication processes. Hence, MIPs have become interesting alternatives to biomolecules as recognition elements for biosensing. In the first part of this thesis (Chapter 2), MIPs were synthesized by in-situ laser-induced photopolymerization in only a few seconds, as a micrometer-sized tip at the extremity of a telecommunication optical fiber. Photonic and physico-chemical parameters were optimized to tailor the properties of the polymer micro-objects. Gold nanoparticles were incorporated into the MIP microtip for signal enhancement. To prove the efficiency of the sensor, initial studies were performed with a MIP templated with N-carbobenzyloxy-L-phenylalanine (Z-L-Phe) and the fluorescent amino acid derivative dansyl-L-phenylalanine as analyte. The fluorescence was collected either externally at the tip level by an optical fiber connected to a spectrofluorimeter or by collection of the fluorescent signal re-emitted into the fiber through the second arm of a Y-shaped bifurcated fiber. The fluorescent analyte could be detected in the low nM concentrations. In order to monitor nonfluorescent analytes, a naphthalimide-based fluorescent monomer was incorporated into the MIP during its synthesis; fluorescence enhancement was observed when analyte binding occurs. Using this system, the sensor containing a MIP specific for the herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), could detect and quantify this analyte at concentrations as low as 2.5 nM. The signaling MIP-based sensor was also applied to analytes of interest for food safety and biomedical applications, such as the mycotoxin citrinin and the sphingolipid, D-erythro-sphingosine-1-phosphate. In the second part of the thesis (Chapter 3), a different type of fiber optic sensor: cheap, fast and made for “single-use”, was developed by using 4-cm long disposable polystyrene evanescent wave optical fiber waveguides. The coating of the MIP was either performed ex-situ, by dip-coating the fiber in a suspension of MIP particles synthesized beforehand, or in-situ by evanescent-wave photopolymerization directly on the fiber. The resulting fiber optic sensor could detect 2,4-D in the low nM range and demonstrated specific and selective recognition of the herbicide over its structural analogues and other non-related carboxyl-containing analytes. Additionally, we demonstrated the versatility of the system by applying the evanescent wave fiber optic sensor to detect citrinin, a mycotoxin, by simply coating the waveguide with a MIP specific for citrinin. This type of technology could possibly be extended to detect other carboxyl-containing analytes, as long as a specific MIP for the concerned analyte is available. In parallel, the technique of evanescent-wave photopolymerization was used for the synthesis of signaling MIP microdots on continuous and nanostructured gold films. This study lays the foundations for future development of plasmonic MIP nanosensors and microchips. In the last part of the thesis (Chapter 4), an innovative sensing method, based on the use of MIPs and analysis by fluorescence polarization, was developed in order to allow the fast and directquantification of analytes in food and environmental samples.

Cette thèse propose une approche rationnelle pour le design de polymères à empreintes moléculaires (MIPs) pour la détection de nitro-explosifs. Les polymères à empreintes moléculaires qui miment la reconnaissance moléculaire biologique, ont l’avantage d’être stables dans des environnements sévères et peuvent adopter différentes formes physiques pour le couplage avec des transducteurs. Leur synthèse est basée sur la co-polymérisation de monomères fonctionnels et réticulants en présence de la molécule cible, ou comme dans cette thèse, d’un analogue ayant une structure proche de celle de la molécule cible. Cela conduit à la formation d’un réseau polymérique tridimensionnel rigide avec des sites de liaison complémentaires en taille, forme et position des groupes fonctionnels de la molécule cible ou de l’analogue. Pour identifier le meilleur monomère fonctionnel pour notre molécule cible, une approche rationnelle basée sur la modélisation moléculaire, la résonance magnétique nucléaire (RMN) et le titrage par calorimétrie isotherme (ITC) a été utilisée. Elle permet d’optimiser le mélange de pré-polymérisation pour identifier le monomère fonctionnel interagissant le plus fortement avec la molécule cible. Les résultats obtenus ont été confrontés à des études de liaison à partir de polymères synthétisés. La formulation polymérique ainsi conçue est intégrée aux surfaces du transducteur sous forme de nanoparticules, de films et de nanoparticules incorporés dans des films de polydopamine électropolymérisés. En plus des polymères traditionnels obtenus par polymérisation radicalaire classique sous forme de particules, des films de MIP à base de polydopamine électropolymérisés ont été étudiés en tant qu'approche alternative pour la détection électrochimique de nitro-explosifs. / This thesis proposes a rational design approach towards molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) for sensing nitro-explosives. Molecularly imprinted polymers are mimicking biological molecular recognition. They have the advantage to be stable in harsh environments and can be tailored into different physical forms for interfacing with transducers. Their synthesis is based on the co-polymerization of functional and cross-linking monomers in the presence of the target analyte or, as in this thesis, with a structural analogue leading to a rigid three-dimensional polymer network with binding sites complementary to the template in size, shape and position of the functional groups. The choice of the functional monomer was carried out with a rational design approach combining molecular modelling, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and isothermal calorimetry (ITC) studies. This allows to optimize the pre-polymerization mixture in order to get strong complexation between the functional monomer and the template. The obtained results were confronted with binding studies performed on synthesized polymers. The thus designed polymer formulation was interfaced with transducer surfaces in form of nanoparticles, films and nanoparticles embedded into electro-polymerized polydopamine films. In addition to the traditional MIPs by free radical polymerization, molecularly imprinted in-situ electro-polymerized polydopamine films were investigated as an alternative approach for sensing nitro-explosives electrochemically.

Neste trabalho propôs-se desenvolver eletrodos compósitos à base de grafite-poliuretana modificados com polímeros metacrilatos com impressão molecular (MIP-TC), visando a determinação do antibiótico tetraciclina em formulações farmacêuticas e urina sintética. O trabalho também visou contribuir no desenvolvimento de um sensor com melhor desempenho no que diz respeito à sensibilidade e seletividade do eletrodo compósito modificado, na quantificação do analito/molécula molde em matrizes complexas. Técnicas eletroanalíticas, tais como voltametria cíclica (CV) e voltametria de pulso diferencial (DPV) foram utilizadas para avaliar a resposta em termos de sensibilidade e seletividade do eletrodo compósito na detecção da tetraciclina (TC), proposto neste trabalho. A otimização dos parâmetros, tais como composição do MIP (5,0 %, m/m), amplitude de pulso (50 mV), velocidade de varredura (10 mV s-1), tempo (300 s) e potencial de acumulação [(+ 0,7 V (vs. SCE)] e faixa granulométrica do MIP (150 a 250 μm), usando voltametria de redissolução anódica por pulso diferencial foi realizada para maximizar a determinação da tetraciclina em tampão fosfato 0,10 mol L -1 (pH 2,5), permitindo obter limites de detecção de 0,555 μmol L-1, 2,70 μmol L-1 e 4,71 μmol L-1, respectivamente, para o EGPU-MIP-TC, EGPU e EGPU-NIP, sem necessidade de renovação da superfície do eletrodo entre as sucessivas medidas. Regiões lineares entre 4,0 e 60,0 μmol L-1, 8,0 e 60,0 μmol L-1 e 20,0 e 100,0 μmol L-1/sup> foram observadas, respectivamente, para o EGPU-MIP-TC, EGPU e EGPU-NIP, para o pico anódico em + 0,9 V (vs. SCE). Os EGPU também foram testados quanto à seletividade frente à possíveis interferentes, sendo utilizados clortetraciclina (CTC) e oxitetraciclina (OTC) para os testes de interferência. Em todos os casos, a interferência do EGPU-MIP-TC foi menor do que a obtida com o EGPU-NIP, confirmando que o EGPU-MIP-TC foi mais efetivo na capacidade de reconhecer seletivamente o analito na presença dos interferentes CTC e OTC. Após as etapas de síntese dos MIP/NIP e confecção dos eletrodos, otimização dos parâmetros, avaliações e testes de sensibilidade e seletividade dos EGPU, os eletrodos foram submetidos à aplicação em duas amostras de medicamentos comerciais, TetraMed® 500 mg e genérico de cloridrato de tetraciclina 500 mg e uma amostra sintética de urina. Os resultados foram comparados ao método oficial por HPLC, apresentando 95 % de confiança, de acordo com o teste t-Student. / In this work, graphite-polyurethane composites electrodes were modified with methacrylate molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP-TC) in order to evaluate the electrodes in the determination of tetracycline (TC) antibiotic in pharmaceutical formulations as well as in biological fluid. The work aimed to contribute in development of a sensor with better performance about the sensitivity and selectivity of the composites electrodes modified in quantification of this analyte. Electroanalytical techniques such as cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) were used to evaluate the selectivity and sensitivity of the composite electrodes in the detection of tetracycline. The parameters optimization, such as MIP composition (5.0 %, m/m), pulse amplitude (50 mV), scan rate (10 mV s-1), accumulation time (300 s), accumulation potential [+ 0.7 V (vs. SCE)], and MIP granulometry (150 to 250 μm), using differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry was done to maximize the determination of tetracycline in phosphate buffer 0.1 mol·L-1 pH 2.5 resulting in LOD of 0.555 μmol L-1, 2.70 μmol L-1 and 4.71 μmol L-1, respectively for the EGPU-MIP-TC, EGPU and EGPU-NIP, without the need for surface renovation between the measures. A linear dynamic range from 4.0 to 60.0 μmol L-1, 8.0 to 60.0 μmol L-1 and 20.0 to 100.0 μmol L-1, respectively for the EGPU-MIP-TC, EGPU and EGPU-NIP was observed for the anodic peak at + 0.9 V (vs. SCE). The EGPU were also tested regarding the selectivity compared to possible interferents, such as chlortetracycline (CTC) and oxytetracycline (OTC) for the interference study. In all cases, the interference of EGPU-MIP-TC was lower than the one that was got with EGPU-NIP, confirming that the EGPU-MIP-TC was more selective than the non-imprinted polymer in the capacity of recognizing, selectively, the analyte in presence of CTC and OTC interferents. After the steps of synthesis of MIP/NIP and electrodes confection, parameters optimization, evaluation and EGPU sensitivity and selectivity studies, the electrodes were submitted to the application in two commercial drugs containing 500 mg of tetracycline cloridrate, TetraMed® and generic; and a synthetic urine sample. The results were compared to the official method by HPLC, presenting 95 % confidence according to the t-Student test.

Neste trabalho foram preparados eletrodos compósitos grafite-poliuretana modificados com polímeros metacrilatos com impressão molecular (EGPU-MIP) visando a determinação de ácido fólico (FA) e forma ácida do diclofenaco (DCF), os quais foram usados como moléculas molde. O objetivo principal era avaliar o desempenho dos MIPs em relação à seletividade e sensibilidade, além da inovação em relação ao uso dos compósitos como material de eletrodo, relativamente a esses analitos. No caso do FA, os MIP foram preparados com essa molécula, relativamente grande e contendo vários grupos funcionais, para avaliar o efeito dessas características no desempenho do sensor. Inicialmente foram feitos estudos exploratórios usando voltametria cíclica (CV), nos quais o FA apresentou pico irreversível de oxidação em +0,80 V (vs. SCE) e picos reversíveis de redução em -0,40 e -0,65 V (vs. SCE), com respectivos processos de oxidação em -0,33 e -0,49 V (vs. SCE). Foi desenvolvido um procedimento analítico para determinação do fármaco usando voltametria de pulso diferencial (DPV), após otimizar parâmetros tais como composição de MIP no sensor de (2,5%, m/m), amplitude de pulso (a = 50 mV), velocidade de varredura (ν = 10 mV s-1) e meio eletrolítico (tampão acetato, pH = 4,5). Nesse procedimento, determinou-se uma mesma região linear de resposta entre 0,6 e 2,0 µmol L-1 para os dois picos de redução em -0,52 e -0,58 V (vs. SCE), com limites de detecção (LOD) de 0,17 e de 0,03 &micromol L-1, respectivamente. O pico em -0,58 V mostrou-se mais sensível e foi escolhido para determinar o FA nas formulações farmacêuticas Folacin&reg, Afopic&reg e Folifolim&reg, com resultados concordantes com o método oficial baseado na Cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (HPLC), em 95% de confiança, segundo o teste t-Student. O MIP-FA mostrou-se mais seletivo que o polímero sem impressão molecular (NIP-DCF) frente às interferências do metotrexato (MTX), porem o ácido ascórbico (AA), ácido úrico (UA) e dopamina (DA) mostraram interferências, em relação aos grupos funcionais presentes nessas espécies, com forte influência da rigidez estrutural e da mobilidade rotacional de tais grupos. Outro MIP foi sintetizado com impressão para DCF. A voltametria cíclica mostrou que o DCF apresenta pico irreversível de oxidação em + 0,83 V (vs. SCE), na primeira varredura e picos reversíveis de redução em +0,40 e +0,65 V (vs. SCE), a partir da segunda varredura, com respectivos processos de oxidação em +0,27 e +0,58 V (vs. SCE). Foi desenvolvido um procedimento analítico para determinação do fármaco em formulações comerciais, usando DPAdASV, após otimização dos parâmetros tais como composição de MIP no sensor (2,5%, m/m), tempo de acumulação (300 s) e potencial de pré-concentração (+0,2 V), a = 50 mV, ν = 10 mV s-1 em ácido perclórico pH condicional (pHcond) = 1,6, com uma região linear entre 0,010 e 0,20 nmol L-1 e LOD de 0,99 nmol L-1 para o pico anódico em +0,8 V (vs. SCE). O DCF foi determinado nas formulações farmacêuticas Biofenac&reg, Medley&reg e Voltaren&reg e em urina sintética. O MIP-DCF se mostrou relativamente seletivo ao sinal do DCF, mesmo na presença dos interferentes como ácido meclofenâmico (AMCFN) e ácido mefenâmico (AMFN), os quais apresentam grande semelhança estrutural e funcional em relação ao analito. Deve-se tomar cuidado ao estender o intervalo de potencial operacional para o GPU, neste meio de ácido perclórico, para evitar ativação de grupos funcionais do grafite e/ou da PU. / In this work methacrylate molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP) were prepared using folic acid (FA) as well as diclofenac (DCF) templates. These MIPs were used in the modification of graphite-polyurethane (GPU) composites in order to evaluate the performance of the resulting electrodes in the determination of the templates in pharmaceutical formulations and to estimate the sensitivity and selectivity of the resulting devices joined to the innovation of using the composites in such development regarding these analytes. In the case of FA, MIPs were prepared with this relatively large and containing multiple functional groups, to evaluate the effect of such characteristics in the performance of the sensor. First of all exploratory experiments were performed using cyclic votammetry (CV) in which the FA presented an irreversible oxidation peak at + 0.80 V (vs. SCE) and reversible reductions peaks at -0.40 and -0.65 V (vs. SCE) with respective oxidation at -0.33 and -0.49 V (vs. SCE). An analytical procedure was developed based on differential pulse voltammetry (DPV), after optimizing parameters such as MIP composition in the sensor (2.5%, m/m), pulse amplitude (a = 50 mV), scan rate (ν = 10 mV s-1) and supporting electrolyte (acetate, pH = 4.5). In such procedure was obtained a linear dynamic range from 0.6 to 2.0 &micromol L-1 for both DPV reduction peaks at -0.52 and -0.58 V (vs. SCE), with limit of detection (LOD) of 0.17 and 0.03 &micromol L-1, respectively. As the second on was more sensitive it was chosen for the determination of FA in the commercial pharmaceutical formulation Folacin&reg, Afopic&reg and Folifolim&reg,with results that agreed with those from the official HPLC procedure within 95% confidence level according to the t-Student test. The MIP-FA was more selective than the non-imprinted polymer (NIP-DCF) in relation to the interference of metotrexate (MTX), however ascorbic acid (AA), uric acid (UA) and dopamine (DA) revealed significant interferences regarding the functional groups present in these species, with strong influence from the structural rigidity of the molecule that plays an important role in the rotational mobility of these groups. Another MIP was synthesized with DCF as a template. Cyclic voltammetry demonstrated that the DCF presented a single irreversible oxidation peak at + 0.83 V (vs. SCE) in the first scan, and two reversible reduction peaks at +0.40 and +0.65 V (vs. SCE) with respective oxidation at +0.27 and +0.58 V (vs. SCE), from the second scan. A DPAdASV procedure was also developed for the determination of DCF in commercial formulations after optimizing some experimental parameters such as MIP composition in the sensor (2.5%, m/m), accumulation time (300 s) and potential (+0.2 V), a = 50 mV, v = 10 mV s-1 and supporting electrolyte (perchloric acid pHcond = 1.6). A linear dynamic range from 0.010 to 0.20 nmol L-1 and a LOD of 0.99 nmol L-1 were observed for the anodic peak at +0.8 V (vs. SCE). Then the DCF was determined in the commercial formulations Biofenac&reg, Medley&reg and Voltaren&reg and also in synthetic urine samples. The MIP-DCF sensor showed to be selective regarding the DCF signal even in the presence of meclophenamic acid (AMCFN) and mefenamic acid (AMFN), which present structural and functional similarity when compared with the analyte. Care must be taken when using the GPU in extreme potential windows in the perchloric acid medium, to avoid activation of functional groups in the polymer.

Depuis de nombreuses années, l’utilisation d’enzyme pour la synthèse de polymères naturels ou synthétiques a largement été développée en tant que procédé alternatif plus vert et plus respectueux de l’environnement. En effet, comparée aux méthodes conventionnelles de synthèse, les enzymes offrent une sélectivité élevée, une capacité à réagir dans des conditions de réaction douces, ainsi que la possibilité de recyclage du biocatalyseur. D’autre part, les polymères à empreintes moléculaires (MIPs) sont des matériaux synthétiques avec des propriétés de reconnaissance moléculaire spécifique envers une molécule cible. Récemment, les MIPs ont été utilisés dans les applications environnementales et biomédicales de part leur propriétés de reconnaissance moléculaire, leur spécificité et sélectivité. Cependant, leur application reste limitée en raison de leur faible biocompatibilité et de la présence de résidu de polymérisation potentiellement nocif. Ce travail de thèse a pour objectif de proposer une méthode alternative pour la synthèse de MIPs basée sur le concept de chimie verte. La peroxydase de raifort (HRP) est utilisée pour initier la co-polymérisation en milieux aqueux de monomères fonctionnels méthacrylates et d’agents réticulants en catalysant la génération des radicaux libres. Différents hydrogels ont été synthétisés et caractérisés, en particulier une cytotoxicité plus faible a été obtenue comparée à celle des polymères synthétisés traditionnellement. La synthèse a été optimisée afin de pouvoir contrôler la taille des particules et le rendement de polymérisation. Des MIPs sous forme de nanoparticules ont été préparés en milieu aqueux pour plusieurs molécules de faible poids moléculaire ainsi que pour des protéines par polymérisation radicalaire libre initiée par HRP. L’effet de la méthode d’initiation a été évalué en comparant les propriétés de ces MIPs à ceux préparées par les méthodes traditionnellement. L’immobilisation de l’HRP a été aussi effectuée pour synthétiser des hydrogels et des MIPs. L’enzyme immobilisée a pu être réutilisée pour synthétiser des MIPs avec les mêmes performances en termes de morphologie, rendement, spécificité et sélectivité. Ces nouveaux matériaux offrent de nombreuses perspectives pour des applications environnementales et biomédicales. / Enzyme-catalyzed synthesis of natural and synthetic polymers has been developed since several decades, as an eco-friendly process. Compared to the conventional methods, enzymes offer high selectivity, ability to operate under mild conditions and to recycle the catalyst. On the other hand, molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are synthetic materials with specific recognition properties for target molecules. They have recently attracted increasing attention in environmental and newly in biomedical applications for their specificity and selectivity. However, concerns about MIP toxicity for human and environment safety are of great importance. Herein, carrying forward the concept of green chemistry, an enzyme-mediated synthesis approach is described to prepare molecularly imprinted nanoparticles (MIP-NPs) in aqueous media. Horseradish peroxidase (HRP) is used to initiate the polymerization of methacrylate-based monomers and cross-linkers by catalyzing the generation of free radicals. Different hydrogels are synthesized and characterized. “Greener” hydrogels are obtained with lower cytotoxicity than that of polymers synthesized by traditional way. The hydrogels synthesis is optimized in order to control the particles sizes and polymerization yields. Moreover, water-compatible MIP nanoparticles for the recognition of different small molecules and proteins are prepared in aqueous media by HRP-initiated free radical polymerization and compared to MIPs prepared by the thermal or photopolymerization methods. HRP immobilization is also performed for hydrogels synthesis as well as MIP preparation. The reusability of immobilized enzyme is investigated for the preparation of several MIP batches with the same morphology, yield as well as good specificity and selectivity. We believe that this new synthesis method for MIPs will provide new opportunities to enlarge the use of molecular imprinting technology in biomedical and environmental applications.

Neste trabalho foram preparados eletrodos compósitos grafite-poliuretana modificados com polímeros metacrilatos com impressão molecular (EGPU-MIP) visando a determinação de ácido fólico (FA) e forma ácida do diclofenaco (DCF), os quais foram usados como moléculas molde. O objetivo principal era avaliar o desempenho dos MIPs em relação à seletividade e sensibilidade, além da inovação em relação ao uso dos compósitos como material de eletrodo, relativamente a esses analitos. No caso do FA, os MIP foram preparados com essa molécula, relativamente grande e contendo vários grupos funcionais, para avaliar o efeito dessas características no desempenho do sensor. Inicialmente foram feitos estudos exploratórios usando voltametria cíclica (CV), nos quais o FA apresentou pico irreversível de oxidação em +0,80 V (vs. SCE) e picos reversíveis de redução em -0,40 e -0,65 V (vs. SCE), com respectivos processos de oxidação em -0,33 e -0,49 V (vs. SCE). Foi desenvolvido um procedimento analítico para determinação do fármaco usando voltametria de pulso diferencial (DPV), após otimizar parâmetros tais como composição de MIP no sensor de (2,5%, m/m), amplitude de pulso (a = 50 mV), velocidade de varredura (ν = 10 mV s-1) e meio eletrolítico (tampão acetato, pH = 4,5). Nesse procedimento, determinou-se uma mesma região linear de resposta entre 0,6 e 2,0 µmol L-1 para os dois picos de redução em -0,52 e -0,58 V (vs. SCE), com limites de detecção (LOD) de 0,17 e de 0,03 &micromol L-1, respectivamente. O pico em -0,58 V mostrou-se mais sensível e foi escolhido para determinar o FA nas formulações farmacêuticas Folacin&reg, Afopic&reg e Folifolim&reg, com resultados concordantes com o método oficial baseado na Cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (HPLC), em 95% de confiança, segundo o teste t-Student. O MIP-FA mostrou-se mais seletivo que o polímero sem impressão molecular (NIP-DCF) frente às interferências do metotrexato (MTX), porem o ácido ascórbico (AA), ácido úrico (UA) e dopamina (DA) mostraram interferências, em relação aos grupos funcionais presentes nessas espécies, com forte influência da rigidez estrutural e da mobilidade rotacional de tais grupos. Outro MIP foi sintetizado com impressão para DCF. A voltametria cíclica mostrou que o DCF apresenta pico irreversível de oxidação em + 0,83 V (vs. SCE), na primeira varredura e picos reversíveis de redução em +0,40 e +0,65 V (vs. SCE), a partir da segunda varredura, com respectivos processos de oxidação em +0,27 e +0,58 V (vs. SCE). Foi desenvolvido um procedimento analítico para determinação do fármaco em formulações comerciais, usando DPAdASV, após otimização dos parâmetros tais como composição de MIP no sensor (2,5%, m/m), tempo de acumulação (300 s) e potencial de pré-concentração (+0,2 V), a = 50 mV, ν = 10 mV s-1 em ácido perclórico pH condicional (pHcond) = 1,6, com uma região linear entre 0,010 e 0,20 nmol L-1 e LOD de 0,99 nmol L-1 para o pico anódico em +0,8 V (vs. SCE). O DCF foi determinado nas formulações farmacêuticas Biofenac&reg, Medley&reg e Voltaren&reg e em urina sintética. O MIP-DCF se mostrou relativamente seletivo ao sinal do DCF, mesmo na presença dos interferentes como ácido meclofenâmico (AMCFN) e ácido mefenâmico (AMFN), os quais apresentam grande semelhança estrutural e funcional em relação ao analito. Deve-se tomar cuidado ao estender o intervalo de potencial operacional para o GPU, neste meio de ácido perclórico, para evitar ativação de grupos funcionais do grafite e/ou da PU. / In this work methacrylate molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP) were prepared using folic acid (FA) as well as diclofenac (DCF) templates. These MIPs were used in the modification of graphite-polyurethane (GPU) composites in order to evaluate the performance of the resulting electrodes in the determination of the templates in pharmaceutical formulations and to estimate the sensitivity and selectivity of the resulting devices joined to the innovation of using the composites in such development regarding these analytes. In the case of FA, MIPs were prepared with this relatively large and containing multiple functional groups, to evaluate the effect of such characteristics in the performance of the sensor. First of all exploratory experiments were performed using cyclic votammetry (CV) in which the FA presented an irreversible oxidation peak at + 0.80 V (vs. SCE) and reversible reductions peaks at -0.40 and -0.65 V (vs. SCE) with respective oxidation at -0.33 and -0.49 V (vs. SCE). An analytical procedure was developed based on differential pulse voltammetry (DPV), after optimizing parameters such as MIP composition in the sensor (2.5%, m/m), pulse amplitude (a = 50 mV), scan rate (ν = 10 mV s-1) and supporting electrolyte (acetate, pH = 4.5). In such procedure was obtained a linear dynamic range from 0.6 to 2.0 &micromol L-1 for both DPV reduction peaks at -0.52 and -0.58 V (vs. SCE), with limit of detection (LOD) of 0.17 and 0.03 &micromol L-1, respectively. As the second on was more sensitive it was chosen for the determination of FA in the commercial pharmaceutical formulation Folacin&reg, Afopic&reg and Folifolim&reg,with results that agreed with those from the official HPLC procedure within 95% confidence level according to the t-Student test. The MIP-FA was more selective than the non-imprinted polymer (NIP-DCF) in relation to the interference of metotrexate (MTX), however ascorbic acid (AA), uric acid (UA) and dopamine (DA) revealed significant interferences regarding the functional groups present in these species, with strong influence from the structural rigidity of the molecule that plays an important role in the rotational mobility of these groups. Another MIP was synthesized with DCF as a template. Cyclic voltammetry demonstrated that the DCF presented a single irreversible oxidation peak at + 0.83 V (vs. SCE) in the first scan, and two reversible reduction peaks at +0.40 and +0.65 V (vs. SCE) with respective oxidation at +0.27 and +0.58 V (vs. SCE), from the second scan. A DPAdASV procedure was also developed for the determination of DCF in commercial formulations after optimizing some experimental parameters such as MIP composition in the sensor (2.5%, m/m), accumulation time (300 s) and potential (+0.2 V), a = 50 mV, v = 10 mV s-1 and supporting electrolyte (perchloric acid pHcond = 1.6). A linear dynamic range from 0.010 to 0.20 nmol L-1 and a LOD of 0.99 nmol L-1 were observed for the anodic peak at +0.8 V (vs. SCE). Then the DCF was determined in the commercial formulations Biofenac&reg, Medley&reg and Voltaren&reg and also in synthetic urine samples. The MIP-DCF sensor showed to be selective regarding the DCF signal even in the presence of meclophenamic acid (AMCFN) and mefenamic acid (AMFN), which present structural and functional similarity when compared with the analyte. Care must be taken when using the GPU in extreme potential windows in the perchloric acid medium, to avoid activation of functional groups in the polymer.

Neste trabalho propôs-se desenvolver eletrodos compósitos à base de grafite-poliuretana modificados com polímeros metacrilatos com impressão molecular (MIP-TC), visando a determinação do antibiótico tetraciclina em formulações farmacêuticas e urina sintética. O trabalho também visou contribuir no desenvolvimento de um sensor com melhor desempenho no que diz respeito à sensibilidade e seletividade do eletrodo compósito modificado, na quantificação do analito/molécula molde em matrizes complexas. Técnicas eletroanalíticas, tais como voltametria cíclica (CV) e voltametria de pulso diferencial (DPV) foram utilizadas para avaliar a resposta em termos de sensibilidade e seletividade do eletrodo compósito na detecção da tetraciclina (TC), proposto neste trabalho. A otimização dos parâmetros, tais como composição do MIP (5,0 %, m/m), amplitude de pulso (50 mV), velocidade de varredura (10 mV s-1), tempo (300 s) e potencial de acumulação [(+ 0,7 V (vs. SCE)] e faixa granulométrica do MIP (150 a 250 μm), usando voltametria de redissolução anódica por pulso diferencial foi realizada para maximizar a determinação da tetraciclina em tampão fosfato 0,10 mol L -1 (pH 2,5), permitindo obter limites de detecção de 0,555 μmol L-1, 2,70 μmol L-1 e 4,71 μmol L-1, respectivamente, para o EGPU-MIP-TC, EGPU e EGPU-NIP, sem necessidade de renovação da superfície do eletrodo entre as sucessivas medidas. Regiões lineares entre 4,0 e 60,0 μmol L-1, 8,0 e 60,0 μmol L-1 e 20,0 e 100,0 μmol L-1/sup> foram observadas, respectivamente, para o EGPU-MIP-TC, EGPU e EGPU-NIP, para o pico anódico em + 0,9 V (vs. SCE). Os EGPU também foram testados quanto à seletividade frente à possíveis interferentes, sendo utilizados clortetraciclina (CTC) e oxitetraciclina (OTC) para os testes de interferência. Em todos os casos, a interferência do EGPU-MIP-TC foi menor do que a obtida com o EGPU-NIP, confirmando que o EGPU-MIP-TC foi mais efetivo na capacidade de reconhecer seletivamente o analito na presença dos interferentes CTC e OTC. Após as etapas de síntese dos MIP/NIP e confecção dos eletrodos, otimização dos parâmetros, avaliações e testes de sensibilidade e seletividade dos EGPU, os eletrodos foram submetidos à aplicação em duas amostras de medicamentos comerciais, TetraMed® 500 mg e genérico de cloridrato de tetraciclina 500 mg e uma amostra sintética de urina. Os resultados foram comparados ao método oficial por HPLC, apresentando 95 % de confiança, de acordo com o teste t-Student. / In this work, graphite-polyurethane composites electrodes were modified with methacrylate molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP-TC) in order to evaluate the electrodes in the determination of tetracycline (TC) antibiotic in pharmaceutical formulations as well as in biological fluid. The work aimed to contribute in development of a sensor with better performance about the sensitivity and selectivity of the composites electrodes modified in quantification of this analyte. Electroanalytical techniques such as cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) were used to evaluate the selectivity and sensitivity of the composite electrodes in the detection of tetracycline. The parameters optimization, such as MIP composition (5.0 %, m/m), pulse amplitude (50 mV), scan rate (10 mV s-1), accumulation time (300 s), accumulation potential [+ 0.7 V (vs. SCE)], and MIP granulometry (150 to 250 μm), using differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry was done to maximize the determination of tetracycline in phosphate buffer 0.1 mol·L-1 pH 2.5 resulting in LOD of 0.555 μmol L-1, 2.70 μmol L-1 and 4.71 μmol L-1, respectively for the EGPU-MIP-TC, EGPU and EGPU-NIP, without the need for surface renovation between the measures. A linear dynamic range from 4.0 to 60.0 μmol L-1, 8.0 to 60.0 μmol L-1 and 20.0 to 100.0 μmol L-1, respectively for the EGPU-MIP-TC, EGPU and EGPU-NIP was observed for the anodic peak at + 0.9 V (vs. SCE). The EGPU were also tested regarding the selectivity compared to possible interferents, such as chlortetracycline (CTC) and oxytetracycline (OTC) for the interference study. In all cases, the interference of EGPU-MIP-TC was lower than the one that was got with EGPU-NIP, confirming that the EGPU-MIP-TC was more selective than the non-imprinted polymer in the capacity of recognizing, selectively, the analyte in presence of CTC and OTC interferents. After the steps of synthesis of MIP/NIP and electrodes confection, parameters optimization, evaluation and EGPU sensitivity and selectivity studies, the electrodes were submitted to the application in two commercial drugs containing 500 mg of tetracycline cloridrate, TetraMed® and generic; and a synthetic urine sample. The results were compared to the official method by HPLC, presenting 95 % confidence according to the t-Student test.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD (Chemistry) / There is growing concern on endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs). The presence of drugs in water supplies was first realized in Germany in the early 1990s when environmental scientists discovered clofibric acid. Clofibric acid has the ability to lower cholesterol in ground water below a water treatment plant. Endocrine disrupting compounds can be defined as those chemicals with the ability to alter daily functioning of the endocrine system in living organisms. There are numerous molecules that are regarded or referred to as EDCs such as but not limited to organochlorinated pesticides, industrial chemicals, plastics and plasticizers, fuels, estrogens and many other chemicals that are found in the environment or are in widespread use. 17?- estradiol is the principal estrogen found in mammals during reproductive years. Estriol is produced in large quantities during pregnancy. 17?-estradiol is the strongest, estriol the weakest. Estriol is water soluble, estrone and estradiol are not. Although estrogen is produced in women they are also at risk of over exposure to estrogen. Pesticides are extensively used today in agricultural settings to prevent and control pests. Various pesticides, including banned organochlorines (OCs) and modern non-persistent pesticides, have shown the ability to disrupt thyroid activity, disturbing the homeostasis of the thyroid system. Because these EDCs have adverse effects on health of both human and wildlife, it is imperative to develop viable costeffective analytical methods for the detection of these EDCs in complicated samples and at very low concentrations. Very high selectivity towards particular compounds is a very important property for the suitability of a detection method. This is because these compounds mostly coexist in complex matrices which makes the detection of a specific compound very challenging. It is paramount to develop highly sensitive and selective methods for the detection of these estrogens and phosphoric acid-based pesticides at trace levels. / 2021-08-31