Denna studies syfte var att identifiera vilka diskurser som blev synliga samt hur och om dessa diskurser bidrog till en process av andrefiering i Ulf Kristerssons nationaldagstal från år 2023. För att utföra studien användes två frågeställningar vars syfte var att identifiera diskurser som kan kopplas till andrefiering, samt hur dessa kan förstås utifrån en process av andrefiering. I mitt resultat och analys användes van Dijks kritiska diskursanalys och diskursstrukturer samt teorier om andrefiering och van Dijks “ingroup-outgroup-polarization”. I resultatet identifierades tre diskurser: diskurs om medborgarskap, diskurs om det svenska språket och diskurs om svenska värderingar, som kunde kopplas till en andrefiering. Ett “vi” och “dem” identifierades genom diskursstrukturer. “Viet” symboliserades med svenska värderingar, tolerans, normer och medborgarskap, till skillnad från “dem” som symboliserades som kriminella, lögnare och med avvikande värderingar. “De andra” målades upp som annorlunda “oss”. Slutsatsen i min studie är att det kunde identifieras en direkt men oftast indirekt andrefieringsprocess i Ulf Kristerssons nationaldagstal. / The purpose of this study was to identify which discourses became visible and how and if these discourses contributed to a process of otherization in Ulf Kristersson's National Day speech from the year 2023. To accomplish the study, two questions were used whose purpose was to identify discourses that can be linked to otherization, as well as how these can be understood based on a process of otherization. In my results and analysis I applied van Dijk's critical discourse analysis and discourse structures as well as theories of otherization and van Dijk's ingroup-outgroup polarization. In the result, three discourses were identified: discourse about citizenship, discourse about the Swedish language and discourse about Swedish values, which could be linked to an otherization. The study identified an "us" and "them" through discourse structures. “Us” was symbolized with Swedish values, tolerance, norms and citizenship, in contrast to "them" who were symbolized as criminals, liars and with deviant values. "The others" were portrayed as different from "us". The conclusion of my study is that the process of otherization in Ulf Kristersson's National Day speech was direct but mostly indirect.

Although suspected to be a widespread phenomenon, workplace favoritism is an under-researched area of study. Scholars have queried the effects of perceived favoritism on employee outcomes through only a handful of studies, and the majority of those studies have been conducted at private firms in Middle Eastern countries where tribalism (i.e., loyalty to one's family or social group) is conventional. Further, differences in conceptual definitions of favoritism and subsequent subdimensions have muddied the understanding of what elements are considered essential to each phenomenon. Finally, favoritism research lacks examinations of conditional indirect effects of favoritism on employee outcomes. Therefore, the purpose of this research is three-fold. The first aim is to develop a comprehensive, multidimensional measure of favoritism that will capture essential elements of the phenomenon that are specific to its subdimensions. Additionally, this study aims to increase our understanding of favoritism by examining the its indirect effects on job satisfaction, organizational commitment, counterproductive work behavior, and turnover intention through organizational justice, as well as explore differences in these effects among the supervisor's ingroup/outgroup members and among employees who vary in their perceptions of permeability to their supervisor's ingroup.

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摘　　要 女性的處境整體而言在客觀上明顯地較男性不利，但是一般女性對其性別有缺乏「團體意識」的現象，她們或是在主觀上未有相對應的不公平感；或是認為自己的處境比其他女性好，對於個人處境的知覺和對於整體女性處境的知覺有差距，未能將兩者聯結在一起。針對此種現象，本論文從內團體與社會比較的角度來探討其原因。 本論文從「華人本土心理學關係取向」與「社會自我認同取向」兩條研究路線，區別出「關係親密性」與「屬性相似性」兩種內團體基礎。當人以「關係親密性」劃分內外團體時，關係親近者是自己人，關係疏遠者是外人；當人以「屬性相似性」劃分內外團體時，屬性相似者是內團體，屬性不相似者是外團體。以配偶、兄弟等男性親人之於女性的關係來說，當女性以「性別」這個「屬性相似性」為內團體基礎，男性親人是其外團體；當女性以「關係親密性」為內團體基礎，男性親人是其內團體。本論文設計兩個研究探討兩性之間內外團體關係的轉變如何影響女性對公平性的知覺與行為反應。 本論文在第一個研究中採取實驗室實驗法，實驗中利用情境模擬的方法，讓故事中的女主角和其他人比較起來承受了不公平的待遇。故事情境中操弄三個獨變項：一是「關係親密性」的內團體基礎，即女主角與親人或陌生人同一團體。二是「屬性相似性」的內團體基礎，即女主角與女性或男性同一團體。三是「社會比較層次」，即女主角是進行團體間比較或團體內人際間比較。然後測量受試對性別的團體意識（包括：對女性處境的不公平知覺、與女性的共同命運感、為女性行動的意願），以及對個人處境的不公平知覺、以及為個人行動的意願。實驗結果顯示，當女性將自己和另一位男性進行人際間比較，以及，將二位女性和二位男性進行團體間比較時，女性在「性別」概念被激發下，她對性別的團體意識會比較高；相較之下，當女性將自己和其他女性，或是將兩位男女和兩位男性進行比較時，在女性的「性別」概念未激發下，她對性別的團體意識會比較低。另外，實驗亦發現，當女性個人和同組的男性進行人際間比較而受不公平待遇時，如果對方是與其關係不親密的陌生男性，女性受試對性別的團體意識會比較高；相較之下，如果對方是與其關係親密的男性親人，女性受試對其性別的團體意識會降低。 本論文在第二個研究中，以已婚職業婦女為研究對象，調查她們對於私領域（婚姻）與公領域（工作）中個人處境的不公平感與滿意程度、女性處境的不公平感與滿意程度、以及她們與女性的共同命運感、對女性運動的支持程度。調查結果發現，儘管女性評估自己在私領域和公領域的付出和獲得，和男性配偶及男性同事比起來，自己是居於不利的一方，而且她們也認為，和台灣整體男性比較起來，台灣整體女性在私領域和公領域中的處境是居於劣勢。但是，受訪的已婚職業婦女對於自己和其他女性處境的相似性知覺，在私領域和公領域上卻不相同。多數女性覺得「自己在婚姻中的處境比其他女性在其婚姻中的處境好」，而且認為「自己在婚姻中的處境和丈夫相同」；但是在公領域中，多數女性覺得「自己在工作組織中的處境和其他女性同事相同」，認為「自己在工作中的處境比男性同事差」。另外，調查結果還發現，覺得「自己在婚姻中的處境和丈夫相同」的女性受訪者，以及，覺得「自己在婚姻中的處境比其他女性好」的女性受訪者，她們的「女性共同命運感」比較低；但是，覺得「自己在工作職場中的處境和其他女性相同」的女性受訪者，「女性共同命運感」比較高。由此可知，多數女性對私領域中的個人處境，和其他女性的共同命運感並不高；但是，女性對公領域中的個人處境，和其他女性的共同命運感比較高。 本論文綜合研究一與研究二的結果指出，兩性之間內、外團體關係的改變正是女性對其性別缺乏團體意識的原因。當女性以「屬性相似性」為內團體基礎時，男性是其外團體；但是，當女性以「關係親密性」為內團體基礎時，兄弟、配偶等男性親人反而成為其內團體。也就是說，隨著女性以「屬性相似性」與「關係親密性」為內團體基礎，男性之於女性的關係會從外團體變成內團體。既然，女性在真實生活中，並不一定總是以「屬性相似性」為內團體基礎，在家庭裡，女性反而可能以「關係親密性」為內團體基礎，所以，一般女性對其性別的團體意識並不高。最後，本論文建議社會心理學研究「內團體」時，應該將擁有親緣關係的家庭成員與具有共同屬性的團體成員作嚴格的區分，因為「關係親密性」與「屬性相似性」是兩種內涵不同的內團體基礎。並建議未來研究應進一步釐清「關係我」與「集體我」運作的基本歷程有何不同。 第一章 　緒論..........................................................................................................................1 第二章 文獻探討..................................................................................................................10 第一節 社會心理學的「內團體」概念...................................................................10 一、社會心理學的「社會性」...........................................................................11 二、自我的分類架構............................................................................................12 三、內團體基礎的區別........................................................................................14 （一）「社會自我認同取向」的內團體研究........................................14 （二）「華人本土心理學」的內團體研究.............................................18 （三）內團體的兩種基礎：「屬性相似性」 與「關係親密性」........................................................................... 21 （四）涉及「屬性相似性」與「關係親密性」兩種基礎的「橫 跨團體」............................................................................................ 23 第二節 女性的內團體................................................................................................ 28 一、變遷社會中的台灣女性............................................................................... 28 二、兩性關係的樣態與女性的內團體基礎......................................................30 三、女性在公╱私領域中的內團體基礎......................................................... 32 第三節 女性對公平性的知覺與行為反應.............................................................. 35 一、女性「團體意識」低落的現象.................................................................. 36 二、內團體基礎與社會比較層次的影響......................................................... 40 （一）人際間與團體間比較與個人及集體層次自我........................... 41 （二）「屬性相似性」下的社會比較..................................................... 43 1.「性別」概念的激發(activate)與未激發.................................... 43 2.社會比較層次在「性別」概念激發下的影響........................ 44 （三）「關係親密性」下的社會比較..................................................... 44 1.「關係親密性」在「性別」概念未激發下的影響............... 45 2.「關係親密性」在「性別」概念激發下的影響................... 45 第三章 研究一：內團體基礎與社會比較層次對公平性知 覺與行為反應的影響.................................................................................... 47 第一節 研究目的與假設................................................................................... 47 第二節 研究方法.................................................................................................50 第三節 研究結果.................................................................................................62 第四節 結論.........................................................................................................79 第四章 研究二：女性對公╱私領域的公平性知覺以及對 女性運動的支持程度──一項已婚職業婦女的調查研究................... 84 第一節 研究目的與假設................................................................................... 84 第二節 研究方法................................................................................................ 86 第三節 研究結果................................................................................................ 94 第四節 結論......................................................................................................... 122 第五章 總結與討論..................................................................................................... 127 參考文獻........................................................................................................................... 138 附錄一：研究一之實驗指導語.................................................................................... 153 附錄二：研究一之實驗操弄情境................................................................................154 附錄三：研究一之問卷................................................................................................. 162 附錄四：研究二之問卷................................................................................................. 164

<p>Intergroup relations are characterised by favourable and unfavourable biases. Towards one’s own group these biases are mostly favourable – ingroup favouritism. Research has, however, shown that outgroup favouritism, that is, the preference for a group to which the person does not belong, also permeates intergroup relations. Several theories such as social identity theory, social dominance theory, and system justification theory offer explanations of the dynamics of intergroup relations and biases. Despite not strictly being a theory of intergroup relations, right-wing authoritarianism also offers an explanation of intergroup bias by accounting for prejudice and ethnocentrism. Likewise, ideological conservatism has been shown to influence intergroup relations. </p><p>Based within these theories, this dissertation attempts to explain the social-psychological mechanisms regulating in- and outgroup favouritism. More specifically, Study I examines issues of power and legitimacy in relation to social perception and gender. Studies II and III examine the relationships between social psychological variables and affirmative action, which is aimed at diminishing inequalities between social groups. Together, the studies showed that gender plays a role in intergroup bias, both as an independent variable and as an object of social discrimination. Conservative ideologies predicted ingroup favouritism, but variably. Attitudes towards affirmative action were influenced by the way this issue is semantically framed. The results are discussed in relation to the theories of intergroup relations exposed above and the pertinent issue of attitude ambivalence in understanding outgroup favouritism.</p>

Intergroup relations are characterised by favourable and unfavourable biases. Towards one’s own group these biases are mostly favourable – ingroup favouritism. Research has, however, shown that outgroup favouritism, that is, the preference for a group to which the person does not belong, also permeates intergroup relations. Several theories such as social identity theory, social dominance theory, and system justification theory offer explanations of the dynamics of intergroup relations and biases. Despite not strictly being a theory of intergroup relations, right-wing authoritarianism also offers an explanation of intergroup bias by accounting for prejudice and ethnocentrism. Likewise, ideological conservatism has been shown to influence intergroup relations. Based within these theories, this dissertation attempts to explain the social-psychological mechanisms regulating in- and outgroup favouritism. More specifically, Study I examines issues of power and legitimacy in relation to social perception and gender. Studies II and III examine the relationships between social psychological variables and affirmative action, which is aimed at diminishing inequalities between social groups. Together, the studies showed that gender plays a role in intergroup bias, both as an independent variable and as an object of social discrimination. Conservative ideologies predicted ingroup favouritism, but variably. Attitudes towards affirmative action were influenced by the way this issue is semantically framed. The results are discussed in relation to the theories of intergroup relations exposed above and the pertinent issue of attitude ambivalence in understanding outgroup favouritism.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:36:39Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 RocheleVCBM_TESE.pdf: 2095393 bytes, checksum: 3e32df9736d15e4a91bb5cabe3afd11b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-02-24 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior / Human cooperation is fundamentally affected by reciprocal exchange, but it is also remarkably common on the context of large and symbolically marked in-groups, which promote cooperation through the feeling of belonging to a group. In this thesis, two empirical articles were produced in order to investigate how human cooperation is affected by factors such as reciprocity, in-group behavior, in-group markers and gender. We investigated this subject through the administration of online games consisting of token donations, on which the subjects faced virtual players controlled by the experiment. We found that cooperative behavior is strongly influenced by reciprocity, and it is also affected by the in-group behavior, observed on the context of the social variables place of birth, ethnicity, and religions, once all of them acted as in-group markers. The subjects? in-group behavior was enhanced when they played with generous in-group opponents, but weakened when their in-group opponents were non-generous. It was also found that cooperation is not affected by gender, but men and women cooperated in different ways under the influence of reciprocity and in-group behavior. Women are much more reciprocal on their cooperative behavior and men are less willing to cooperate with outgroupers, even when they act generously. The overall results contribute to a better understanding of the adaptive value of cooperation, reciprocity and in-group behavior on the solution of important challenges through the human evolutionary history / A coopera??o humana, al?m ser fundamentada pelas trocas rec?procas, desenvolve-se notadamente dentro de grupos extensos e simbolicamente marcados, nos quais existe a presen?a de marcadores de grupos, elementos que promovem a coopera??o por indicar pertin?ncia compartilhada. Na presente tese de doutorado, foram produzidos dois artigos emp?ricos que investigaram como a coopera??o humana se organiza diante dos fatores reciprocidade, comportamento de favorecimento de grupos, influ?ncia de marcadores de grupo e sexo dos indiv?duos. O m?todo de investiga??o consistiu no emprego de jogos online de doa??o de fichas, nos quais os sujeitos interagiam com jogadores virtuais controlados pelo experimento. Em linhas gerais, verificamos que o comportamento cooperativo sofre forte influ?ncia da reciprocidade. A coopera??o tamb?m ? afetada pelo favorecimento de grupos, comportamento que emergiu sob a influ?ncia das vari?veis naturalidade, etnia e religi?o, as quais atuaram como marcadores de grupo. O comportamento de favorecimento de grupos dos sujeitos mostrou-se amplificado na condi??o em que os parceiros de grupo cooperaram de forma generosa e enfraquecido na condi??o em que os parceiros de grupo foram pouco generosos. Verificamos tamb?m que a coopera??o n?o ? afetada pelo sexo dos indiv?duos. Por outro lado, homens e mulheres cooperam de forma diferenciada sob a influ?ncia da reciprocidade e do comportamento de favorecimento de grupos: as mulheres apresentam um perfil mais rec?proco na coopera??o e os homens cooperam pouco com os indiv?duos que n?o pertencem ao seu grupo, mesmo quando estes s?o generosos. Os resultados dos trabalhos, tomados em conjunto, contribuem para a compreens?o do valor adaptativo da coopera??o, da reciprocidade e do comportamento de favorecimento de grupos na solu??o de desafios na hist?ria evolutiva do homem

In der Dissertation nimmt sich die Verfasserin einem Phänomen an, das im deutschen Einzelhandel weit verbreitet ist, über das es aber kaum empirische Untersuchungen gibt: Die Behandlung geringfügig Beschäftigter und die entsprechenden Einstellungen der Betroffenen und des Stammpersonals. Als Grundlage für die empirische Untersuchung dienen die Soziale Identitätstheorie, das Common Ingroup Identity Model und die Revidierte Kontakttheorie. Auf Basis einer schriftlichen Befragung von 372 Stammmitarbeitern und 75 geringfügig Beschäftigten sowie 36 halbstrukturierten Interviews mit Personalverantwortlichen, Stamm- und geringfügig Beschäftigten in insgesamt 15 Unternehmen des überwiegend ostdeutschen Einzelhandels untersuchte die Verfasserin, ob sich geringfügig Beschäftigte mit ihrem Unternehmen identifizieren und sich in die Belegschaft der jeweiligen Filiale integriert fühlen. Außerdem ging die Verfasserin den Fragen nach, unter welchen Umständen sich geringfügig Beschäftigte in die Belegschaft integriert fühlen und in welchem Ausmaß und auf welche Weise die untersuchten Unternehmen die Integration der Minijobber bzw. Herausbildung einer gemeinsamen Gruppenidentität fördern. Darüber hinaus werden auch die Fragen geklärt, welche Auswirkungen eine mangelnde Integration auf die Kooperationsbeziehungen zwischen Stamm- und geringfügig Beschäftigten sowie auf die Verbleibabsicht, die Arbeitszufriedenheit und Organizational Citizenship Behavior hat. Die Ergebnisse der schriftlichen Befragung von Stammpersonal und geringfügig Beschäftigten zeigen, dass es scheinbar keine Beeinträchtigungen durch eine Distanzierung von geringfügig Beschäftigten im Hinblick auf die Unternehmen-Identifikation, die Kooperationsbereitschaft, die Verbleibabsicht und Allgemeine Arbeitszufriedenheit bei beiden Gruppen gibt. Die Ergebnisse der mündlichen Befragung geben dagegen Hinweise auf unkooperative, von Misstrauen geprägte Beziehungen zwischen beiden Gruppen und eine mangelnde Integration von geringfügig Beschäftigten. Eine Personalpolitik, die auf eine Ausgrenzung von geringfügig Beschäftigten ausgerichtet ist, kann die Wahrnehmung einer gemeinsamen Gruppenidentität zerstören und unkooperative und misstrauensgeprägte Beziehungen zwischen Stamm- und geringfügig Beschäftigten bewirken.

This thesis examines the relevance of animal symbolism for group cohesion within Vendel- and Viking Age warrior groups. Late Iron Age Scandinavia (c. 550-1050) saw increased political centralization where leading figures would legitimize and maintain their authority by forming and maintaining warrior groups. Animal symbolism is examined with regards to its role in stimulating processes of 'ingroup identification and identity fusion, which are likely to have been of vital importance in facilitating cohesion within ancient Scandinavian warrior groups. Literary, historical and archaeological sources are examined and compared in order to identify independently reoccuring phenomena, which collectively provide indications about the martial ideologies and practices of the Vendel- and Viking periods. Animals were used as identifying symbols for specific individuals, groups and organizations which could hade served to identify group members and hightlight the distinctiveness of ingroups in order to stimulate cooperation. Particular animals such as ravens were used by Scandinavian leaders in order to indicate martial competency and connections to the god Odin. Both of these functions would have increades the warrior bands' confidence in, and presumably loyalty towards their commanders. Animal symbolism was likely used by some warrior groups in the assumption of therianthropic identities. Conceptions of therianthropy could have stimulated identity fusion by cultivating specific personality traits, providing ideological motivations for violent actions, enhancing actual or perceived combat performance and by distinguishing therianthropic warriors from the rest of society. The relevant forms of animal symbolism would have coexisted to various degrees withing the same or similar ideological frameworks with Odin as a reoccuring and significant - but not necessarily essential - central figure.

The present study aims to test my hypothesis that the language forms found in the Blocos Afro discourses in Salvador de Bahia, Brazil can be seen as expressions of Afro-Brazilian and/or Blocos Afro identity work and can also be seen as being, at least thematically, connected to the negritude movement.  The study is based on samples created of Blocos Afro lyrics. As a selection of Blocos Afro I chose Ilê Ayiê, Cortejo Afro and Olodum, which are all well recognized and with a long tradition presenting themselves in Salvador.  In total the analysis was made from 31942 words and/or 250 lyrics.  A pilot was used to create a framework to select and identify expressions and language forms attested to be associated with the Afro-Brazilian identity. I relied on quantitative and qualitative approaches to the analyses. First, I categorized the expressions from the different lyrics by using a word cloud application which provides an overview of word frequency in a given corpus and can be used to underpin qualitative analyses. By using word cloud the frequency of words in the total corpus of 250 lyrics and particular lyrics was analyzed. Based on this analysis of the frequency of use of expression and language forms, I carried out a thematic analysis of the discourses and compared the themes to salient themes of negritude.  The results show that the Afro-Brazilian identity in Salvador is thematically connected to the negritude movement and that the Afro-Blocos lyrics analyzed show identity work a strong ingroup perspective.