According to the numerical data from the past three decades, income inequality remains a significant challenge on a global scale, irrespective of the countries’ development status. Even though the global economy has experienced growth, income inequalities have not decreased correspondingly. Global integration, international commerce, economic expansions, and changes in labor market dynamics all together participate in the process of shaping economic inequalities. The thesis investigates the impact of various macroeconomic indicators on income inequality and attempts to identify evidence for the bell-shaped Kuznets curve. Fixed- and random-effects models are utilized for the analysis, in which balanced panel data from 52 high- and middle-income countries covering the period 1998 through 2020 are considered. The results of our study identify a U-turned relationship between GDP per capita and income inequality, which does not support the Kuznets hypothesis. Furthermore, we also identified that higher average educational levels reduce income inequality, while international commerce and higher unemployment rates increase it.

A Contabilidade Financeira busca informações confiáveis que sejam razoavelmente livres de erros, viés e mostrem, fielmente, o que visam representar. A obtenção de valores ambientais com menos viés possíveis, mais acurados e comparáveis poderia, talvez, se constituir em parâmetro para definição de serviços ambientais, ensejar discussões quanto ao tratamento contábil da área do bioma preservado e, também, comercialização de certificado ambiental baseado na preservação do meio ambiente e, de forma geral, servir de subsídios para tomada de decisões empresariais e governamentais. Este trabalho tem por objetivo propor métrica de valoração de Reservas Legais e Áreas de Preservação Permanente em propriedades agrícolas, no seu estado natural, puro e ainda livre dos efeitos das ações humanas. A métrica foi desenvolvida com base no método de Custo de Oportunidade (CO), Contabilidade Emergética e Curva Ambiental de Kuznets (CAK). A referida métrica constitui-se da soma do valor do C.O. ao Valor Total do Bioma (VTB). Porém, o valor do C.O. é descontado pelo risco do negócio analisado. O VTB é estimado pela Contabilidade Emergética, sendo considerada a área do hectare preservado, em RL e/ou APP, e a área remanescente do bioma estudado. Então, o VTB é ponderado pela CAK, esta estimada pela variação dos preços da cultura agrícola analisada. Visando sua validação, estimou-se a área preservada em hectares de Reservas Legais e Áreas de Preservação Permanente de cada bioma terrestre brasileiro referente às dez culturas agrícolas que possuem maior área plantada. Das culturas utilizaram-se os dados sobre os valores brutos de produção, a variação dos preços em média nacional e a extensão territorial das unidades federais brasileiras. Utilizaram-se também os dados dos biomas terrestres brasileiros referentes às suas áreas totais e áreas remanescentes preservadas. Informações estas obtidas em consulta ao site do IBGE, IBAMA e Agrolink. Na sequência, foi aplicada a métrica para valorar os biomas preservados em nível nacional e sobre cinco culturas reais de dados coletados de empresas agrícolas. Entre os resultados obtidos com a métrica, o maior valor foi para o bioma Pampas sobre a cultura agrícola de mandioca no ano de 2010 (R$1.754,03) e o menor para o bioma Cerrado sob a cultura de trigo no ano de 2005 (R$ 53,67). A tentativa era expressar os valores, por meio da métrica proposta, que diferentes indivíduos atribuiriam aos biomas e, com isso, estimular a preservação ao viabilizar um mercado que remunere os preservadores. Trata-se de uma proposta inovadora, e os valores podem ser utilizados para auxiliar legisladores a viabilizar a regulamentação das legislações que preveem a concessão de compensações pela prestação de serviços ambientais, além de servirem como instrumentos de gestão ambiental interna às empresas, principalmente, pelo reconhecimento do potencial de benefícios dos recursos sob suas responsabilidades. / The Financial Accounting search reliable information that is reasonably free errors, bias and show, faithfully, what aim at represents. Obtaining environmental values with less bias possible, more accurate and comparable could, perhaps, constitute parameter for defining environmental services, give rise to discussions about the accounting treatment of the biome area preserved and, also, marketing of environmental certificate based on preservation the environment and, in general way, serve as support for business decisions take and government. This work aims to propose metric valuation of Legal Reserves and Permanent Preservation Areas on agricultural properties, in their natural state, pure and yet free from the effects of human actions. The metric was developed based on the method of Opportunity Cost (OC), Accounting Emergy and Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC). The metric constitutes themselves from the sum of the value of O.C. to the Biome Total Value (BTV). However, the value of O.C. is discounted by business risk analyzed. The BTV is estimated by Emergy Accounting, considering the area hectare preserved in RL and / or APP, and the remaining area of the biome studied. So, the VTB is weighted by EKC, estimated by this change in the prices of agricultural crops analyzed. Aiming validation, estimated the preserved area in hectares of Legal Reserves and Permanent Preservation Areas of each terrestrial biome Brazilian referring to the ten crops that have greater acreage. From the cultures used the data on gross production, the price variation in average national and territorial scope of the federal units of Brazil. Were also used data from the Brazilian terrestrial biomes with respect to their total areas and remaining areas preserved. Information they obtained by consulting the IBGE site, IBAMA and Agrolink. Further, we applied the metric to value biomes preserved in national and over five real cultures data collected from agricultural enterprises. Between the results obtained with the metric, the highest value was for the Pampas biome on the cassava crop in 2010 (R $ 1,754.03) and lowest for the Cerrado biome in the wheat crop in 2005 (R $ 53.67). The attempt was to express the values, through the proposed metric, which would assign individuals on different biomes and, thereby, encouraging the preservation by allowing a market to remunerate preservers. This is an innovative proposal, and the values can be used to assist legislators to enable the regulation of the laws that predict the granting compensation the provision of environmental services, besides serving as instruments of internal environmental management firms, mainly, by recognition of the potential benefits of the resources under their responsibility.

<p>The economic development and industrialization that has taken place in many parts of the world during the past century has brought about a huge increase in economic welfare. During this process, it has repeatedly been debated whether the gains from economic development are shared by everyone or just a few. In the field of economics, vast research has been conducted on this particular subject ever since the 1950’s. The most famous contribution might be said to be Simon Kuznets article, Growth and Income Inequality from 1955 and the ”inverted U”-hypothesis that was formulated on the basis of that article. The essence of the hypothesis is that a country, during its development, moves from agricultural to industrial production. At first, income inequality increases and then, at the end of the process, decreases.</p><p>The aim of this paper has been to investigate the relationship between income distribution and economic development in a particular region, namely the countries of the former Soviet Union, during 1992-2003. Also, we have tested whether Kuznets theory and the “inverted U”-hypothesis hold true for our sample. The investigations method is a survey, which uses secondary data collected from the World Bank’s database of World Development Indicators. Regression-analysis has been employed to conduct cross-sections between 20 countries over 4 periods in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The number of observations equals to 62. The variables that we use are: the Gini index, GDP per capita and the agricultural sector’s share of GDP.</p><p>The results of the regression do not indicate any resemblance to the pattern of the “inverted U”-hypothesis. The curve we get is that of a “positive U”. Countries with high GDP per capita as well as countries with low GDP per capita have high income inequality. Countries with mediate GDP per capita levels have low income inequality. Our analysis concludes that the countries in our sample might have had a very unique economic development following the fall of the Soviet Union. Only 7 countries partly follow the Kuznets theory if tested individually. Since these seven countries seem to have a reversed development with increasing agricultural sector and the remainder of the countries show increasing income inequality, we reject the “inverted U”-hypothesis and question the ability of Kuznets’ theory to explain income distribution for our sample.</p>

The economic development and industrialization that has taken place in many parts of the world during the past century has brought about a huge increase in economic welfare. During this process, it has repeatedly been debated whether the gains from economic development are shared by everyone or just a few. In the field of economics, vast research has been conducted on this particular subject ever since the 1950’s. The most famous contribution might be said to be Simon Kuznets article, Growth and Income Inequality from 1955 and the ”inverted U”-hypothesis that was formulated on the basis of that article. The essence of the hypothesis is that a country, during its development, moves from agricultural to industrial production. At first, income inequality increases and then, at the end of the process, decreases. The aim of this paper has been to investigate the relationship between income distribution and economic development in a particular region, namely the countries of the former Soviet Union, during 1992-2003. Also, we have tested whether Kuznets theory and the “inverted U”-hypothesis hold true for our sample. The investigations method is a survey, which uses secondary data collected from the World Bank’s database of World Development Indicators. Regression-analysis has been employed to conduct cross-sections between 20 countries over 4 periods in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The number of observations equals to 62. The variables that we use are: the Gini index, GDP per capita and the agricultural sector’s share of GDP. The results of the regression do not indicate any resemblance to the pattern of the “inverted U”-hypothesis. The curve we get is that of a “positive U”. Countries with high GDP per capita as well as countries with low GDP per capita have high income inequality. Countries with mediate GDP per capita levels have low income inequality. Our analysis concludes that the countries in our sample might have had a very unique economic development following the fall of the Soviet Union. Only 7 countries partly follow the Kuznets theory if tested individually. Since these seven countries seem to have a reversed development with increasing agricultural sector and the remainder of the countries show increasing income inequality, we reject the “inverted U”-hypothesis and question the ability of Kuznets’ theory to explain income distribution for our sample.

A Contabilidade Financeira busca informações confiáveis que sejam razoavelmente livres de erros, viés e mostrem, fielmente, o que visam representar. A obtenção de valores ambientais com menos viés possíveis, mais acurados e comparáveis poderia, talvez, se constituir em parâmetro para definição de serviços ambientais, ensejar discussões quanto ao tratamento contábil da área do bioma preservado e, também, comercialização de certificado ambiental baseado na preservação do meio ambiente e, de forma geral, servir de subsídios para tomada de decisões empresariais e governamentais. Este trabalho tem por objetivo propor métrica de valoração de Reservas Legais e Áreas de Preservação Permanente em propriedades agrícolas, no seu estado natural, puro e ainda livre dos efeitos das ações humanas. A métrica foi desenvolvida com base no método de Custo de Oportunidade (CO), Contabilidade Emergética e Curva Ambiental de Kuznets (CAK). A referida métrica constitui-se da soma do valor do C.O. ao Valor Total do Bioma (VTB). Porém, o valor do C.O. é descontado pelo risco do negócio analisado. O VTB é estimado pela Contabilidade Emergética, sendo considerada a área do hectare preservado, em RL e/ou APP, e a área remanescente do bioma estudado. Então, o VTB é ponderado pela CAK, esta estimada pela variação dos preços da cultura agrícola analisada. Visando sua validação, estimou-se a área preservada em hectares de Reservas Legais e Áreas de Preservação Permanente de cada bioma terrestre brasileiro referente às dez culturas agrícolas que possuem maior área plantada. Das culturas utilizaram-se os dados sobre os valores brutos de produção, a variação dos preços em média nacional e a extensão territorial das unidades federais brasileiras. Utilizaram-se também os dados dos biomas terrestres brasileiros referentes às suas áreas totais e áreas remanescentes preservadas. Informações estas obtidas em consulta ao site do IBGE, IBAMA e Agrolink. Na sequência, foi aplicada a métrica para valorar os biomas preservados em nível nacional e sobre cinco culturas reais de dados coletados de empresas agrícolas. Entre os resultados obtidos com a métrica, o maior valor foi para o bioma Pampas sobre a cultura agrícola de mandioca no ano de 2010 (R$1.754,03) e o menor para o bioma Cerrado sob a cultura de trigo no ano de 2005 (R$ 53,67). A tentativa era expressar os valores, por meio da métrica proposta, que diferentes indivíduos atribuiriam aos biomas e, com isso, estimular a preservação ao viabilizar um mercado que remunere os preservadores. Trata-se de uma proposta inovadora, e os valores podem ser utilizados para auxiliar legisladores a viabilizar a regulamentação das legislações que preveem a concessão de compensações pela prestação de serviços ambientais, além de servirem como instrumentos de gestão ambiental interna às empresas, principalmente, pelo reconhecimento do potencial de benefícios dos recursos sob suas responsabilidades. / The Financial Accounting search reliable information that is reasonably free errors, bias and show, faithfully, what aim at represents. Obtaining environmental values with less bias possible, more accurate and comparable could, perhaps, constitute parameter for defining environmental services, give rise to discussions about the accounting treatment of the biome area preserved and, also, marketing of environmental certificate based on preservation the environment and, in general way, serve as support for business decisions take and government. This work aims to propose metric valuation of Legal Reserves and Permanent Preservation Areas on agricultural properties, in their natural state, pure and yet free from the effects of human actions. The metric was developed based on the method of Opportunity Cost (OC), Accounting Emergy and Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC). The metric constitutes themselves from the sum of the value of O.C. to the Biome Total Value (BTV). However, the value of O.C. is discounted by business risk analyzed. The BTV is estimated by Emergy Accounting, considering the area hectare preserved in RL and / or APP, and the remaining area of the biome studied. So, the VTB is weighted by EKC, estimated by this change in the prices of agricultural crops analyzed. Aiming validation, estimated the preserved area in hectares of Legal Reserves and Permanent Preservation Areas of each terrestrial biome Brazilian referring to the ten crops that have greater acreage. From the cultures used the data on gross production, the price variation in average national and territorial scope of the federal units of Brazil. Were also used data from the Brazilian terrestrial biomes with respect to their total areas and remaining areas preserved. Information they obtained by consulting the IBGE site, IBAMA and Agrolink. Further, we applied the metric to value biomes preserved in national and over five real cultures data collected from agricultural enterprises. Between the results obtained with the metric, the highest value was for the Pampas biome on the cassava crop in 2010 (R $ 1,754.03) and lowest for the Cerrado biome in the wheat crop in 2005 (R $ 53.67). The attempt was to express the values, through the proposed metric, which would assign individuals on different biomes and, thereby, encouraging the preservation by allowing a market to remunerate preservers. This is an innovative proposal, and the values can be used to assist legislators to enable the regulation of the laws that predict the granting compensation the provision of environmental services, besides serving as instruments of internal environmental management firms, mainly, by recognition of the potential benefits of the resources under their responsibility.

Banco do Nordeste do Brasil / The company apparently always ignored (or did not spend enough attention) externalities of economic activity harmful to the environment and, consequently, is facing its possible effects in recent decades. Recently, now more conscious of their actions, their continued growth policies are usually formulated taking into account the growth the trade-off between economic growth and environmental preservation cluttered, given that "the agenda" is to combine increased income with sustainability and environmental preservation. Thus, this thesis investigated the relationship between CO2 emissions and economic activity, considering an overall look from the second half of the twentieth century. However, it is used as a motto the literature of economic growth by considering that the relationship above can be analyzed from the Environmental Kuznets Curve, the estimation of the trend of CO2 emission intensity and the analysis of convergence Emission CO2pc. According to the results achieved by three chapters, one can say that to reduce the level of CO2 emissions and mitigate the effects of global warming we need to establish a new regime of CO2 emission quotas with more countries than what has been agreed with the PQ and still contemplate developing countries like China, Ãndia, MÃxico and Ãfrica do Sul At the same time, we must establish a system of taxation for GHG emissions in order to achieve the desired goals of stabilizing and subsequently reduce the emission levels more easily. Moreover, it is necessary that quotas and taxation of CO2 emissions are set from the current level of emissions and the speed of convergence for clubs highest emission level. However, there must be differentiated quotas schemes for the rich countries and developing countries, so allow them to reach the income levels of rich countries. The differentiated regime is necessary because the effects of global warming on society in the XXI century and elevations are consequences of the gas atmosphere during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Therefore, it is for developed countries to further reduce CO2 emissions, according to their historical emissions. However, less developed nations can not fail to participate in this system and also is a need to reconcile economic growth with environmental preservation in such a way to mitigate the effects of global warming on future generations. Another measure that tends to be efficient in combating global warming is to support the development of alternative energy sources with low emission intensity, so increasing the speed of convergence for economies with low GHG emissions. That is, we must achieve energy efficiency from the use of clean energy (less carbon-intensive) and, for that necessarily need to replace fossil fuels. Moreover, it is necessary to transfer technologies with low carbon emissions of developed countries to developing nations in order to generate a global welfare, since this measure tends to increase speed of convergence to a low- CO2 emissions. / As sociedades aparentemente sempre ignoraram (ou nÃo despenderam atenÃÃo suficiente) as externalidades da atividade econÃmica danosas ao meio ambiente e, como consequÃncia, vem enfrentando seus possÃveis efeitos nas Ãltimas dÃcadas. Recentemente, agora mais consciente de suas aÃÃes, suas polÃticas de continuidade do crescimento sÃo geralmente formuladas levando-se em consideraÃÃo o crescimento o trade-off entre crescimento econÃmico desordenado e preservaÃÃo ambiental, haja vista que âa ordem do diaâ à conciliar aumento da renda com sustentabilidade como a preservaÃÃo do meio ambiente. Neste sentido, esta Tese investigou a relaÃÃo entre as emissÃes de CO2 e a atividade econÃmica, considerando um aspecto global a partir da segunda metade do sÃculo XX. No entanto, utiliza-se como mote a literatura de crescimento econÃmico por considerar que a relaÃÃo supracitada pode ser analisada a partir da Curva de Kuznets Ambiental, da estimaÃÃo da tendÃncia da Intensidade de EmissÃo de CO2 e da anÃlise de ConvergÃncia de EmissÃo de CO2 per capita (CO2pc). De acordo com os resultados alcanÃados pelos trÃs capÃtulos, pode-se dizer que para reduzir o nÃvel de emissÃo de CO2 e mitigar os efeitos do aquecimento global à preciso estabelecer um novo regime de cotas emissÃo de CO2 com mais paÃses do que o que foi acordado com o Protocolo de Quioto e, ainda, contemplar os paÃses em desenvolvimento como China, Ãndia, MÃxico e Ãfrica do Sul. Ao mesmo tempo, à preciso estabelecer um sistema de tributaÃÃo para as emissÃes de gases de efeito estufa (GEE), a fim de permitir alcanÃar os objetivos de estabilizar e, posteriormente, reduzir os nÃveis de emissÃo de maneira mais fÃcil. AlÃm disso, à preciso que as cotas e a tributaÃÃo de emissÃo de CO2 sejam definidas a partir do nÃvel atual de emissÃo e da velocidade de convergÃncia para clubes de maior nÃvel de emissÃo. No entanto, deve haver regimes de cotas diferenciadas para os paÃses ricos e os paÃses em desenvolvimento, de tal maneira a permitir que estes alcancem os nÃveis de renda dos paÃses ricos. O regime diferenciado se faz necessÃrio porque os efeitos do aquecimento global sobre a sociedade nos sÃculo XX e XXI sÃo consequÃncias dos gases alÃados a atmosfera terrestre durante os sÃculos XVIII e XIX. Por isso, cabe aos paÃses desenvolvidos a maior reduÃÃo das emissÃes de CO2, em funÃÃo do seu histÃrico de emissÃo. Todavia, as naÃÃes menos desenvolvidas nÃo podem deixar de participar deste sistema e, ainda, à necessÃrio conciliar crescimento econÃmico com preservaÃÃo ambiental de tal forma a mitigar os efeitos do aquecimento global sobre as futuras geraÃÃes. Outra medida que tende a ser eficiente ao combate do aquecimento global à subsidiar o desenvolvimento de fontes alternativas de energia com baixa intensidade de emissÃo, de tal modo a aumentar a velocidade de convergÃncia para economias de baixa emissÃo de GEE. Ou seja, à preciso alcanÃar a eficiÃncia energÃtica a partir do consumo de energia limpa (menos intensiva em emissÃo de carbono) e, para isto, necessariamente, à preciso substituir os combustÃveis fÃsseis. AlÃm do mais, se faz necessÃrio a transferÃncia de tecnologias com baixa emissÃo de carbono dos paÃses desenvolvidos para as naÃÃes em desenvolvimento a fim de gerar um bem-estar global, uma vez que esta medida tende a aumentar velocidade de convergÃncia para uma economia de baixa emissÃo de CO2.

Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2016-10-17T13:34:11Z No. of bitstreams: 1 tercianesabatinicarvalho.pdf: 2411280 bytes, checksum: b3e6a12356189399e279b23c9217ee6f (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2016-10-25T11:55:03Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 tercianesabatinicarvalho.pdf: 2411280 bytes, checksum: b3e6a12356189399e279b23c9217ee6f (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-10-25T11:55:03Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 tercianesabatinicarvalho.pdf: 2411280 bytes, checksum: b3e6a12356189399e279b23c9217ee6f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008-12-15 / As questões sobre o meio ambiente, ano após ano, vêm desempenhando um destacado papel no debate global sobre o futuro do planeta. Devido à liberação de enormes quantidades de CO2 na combustão de energias fósseis, as suas emissões são classificadas como uma das forças motrizes por trás do fenômeno do aquecimento global. Em todo o mundo, as emissões dos gases de “efeito estufa” (GEE) estão aumentando, apesar dos esforços comuns para implementar acordos internacionais, como o Protocolo de Quioto. Nesse contexto, esta dissertação visa investigar a hipótese da Curva de Kuznets Ambiental (CKA) global e a sua relação com o Protocolo de Quioto. Portanto, um de seus objetivos é verificar se existe uma relação na forma de U invertido entre um índice de degradação ambiental global (emissões de CO2 per capita) e o crescimento econômico (medido pelo PIB per capita) para uma amostra de 167 países durante o período de 2000-2004, utilizando um modelo de efeitos fixos com dependência espacial. Outro objetivo desta dissertação é avaliar o papel do Protocolo de Quioto como uma política global, a fim de reduzir as emissões. Para isso, uma variável dummy, representando os países que ratificaram o Protocolo, é adicionada do lado direito da regressão. Além disso, mais três variáveis são colocadas no lado direito da regressão: nível de comércio, consumo de energia e densidade populacional. Os resultados da Análise Exploratória de Dados Espaciais (AEDE) revelaram que as emissões de CO2 per capita não são distribuídas aleatoriamente, bem como identificou uma série de países que emitem mais do que os outros países: Estados Unidos, Canadá, Austrália, Barein, Brunei, Kuwait, Luxemburgo, Emirados Árabes Unidos, Trinidad e Tobago e Aruba. A AEDE encontrou a existência de clusters, mostrando que o padrão Baixo-Baixo ocorre principalmente nos países mais pobres africanos e asiáticos, enquanto o padrão Alto-Alto aparece essencialmente nos países europeus e países do sudoeste asiático. Os resultados econométricos, a princípio, sugerem a existência de uma CKA na forma de “N” e não de “U” invertido, encontrando os seguintes “pontos de inflexão”: US$ 12.262,44 e US$ 27.083,33. As demais variáveis explicativas também apresentaram os sinais esperados e todas exibiram um coeficiente altamente significativo. Cerca de 80% da amostra não possuem renda acima do ponto de inflexão calculado, ou seja, a grande maioria dos países se encontraria na primeira parte ascendente da curva, revelando que no intervalo de renda observado para os 167 países, muitos exibem uma curva monotonicamente crescente. Isso parece confirmar e ilustrar a natureza global do impacto do dióxido de carbono, revelando que há pouco incentivo para as nações tomarem ações unilaterais para reduzir suas emissões, e que ações multilaterais estão sendo desenvolvidas lentamente. Outra questão importante é o coeficiente negativo e estatisticamente significativo para a variável dummy dos países que ratificaram o Protocolo de Quioto, revelando a importância de acordos internacionais na redução do montante global das emissões de carbono per capita. Portanto, o crescimento econômico sozinho não pode substituir políticas que aspirem a redução das emissões de CO2. Este resultado sugere que políticas internacionais podem ajudar a reduzir as emissões de GEE, mas é preciso que mais países se comprometam nessa redução. Portanto, crescimento econômico por si só não garante a cura para os problemas relacionados ao meio ambiente. As políticas ambientais têm papel fundamental na inversão da trajetória dos poluentes que seguem a CKA. / Over the years environmental issues have been playing a remarkable role in the global debate about the Earth future. Due to the release of huge amounts of CO2 in the combustion of fossil fuels, its emissions are classified as one of the driving forces behind the global warming phenomenon. Worldwide, emissions of the "greenhouse effect" gases (GHG) are increasing, despite the joint efforts to implement international agreements like the Kyoto Protocol. In this context, the present dissertation is aimed at investigating the Global Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis and its relationship with the Kyoto Protocol. Therefore, one of its objectives is to verify whether there is an inverted U shaped relationship between an index of global environmental degradation (per capita CO2 emissions) and economic growth (measured by per capita GDP) for a sample of 167 countries over the period 2000-2004, using a fixed effect model with spatial dependence. Another objective of this dissertation is to evaluate the role of the Kyoto Protocol as a global policy in order to reduce emissions. To do so, a dummy variable, representing the countries that have ratified the Protocol, is put in right hand of the regression. Besides, another three variables are inserted in the right hand of regression: the trade level, energy consumption and population density. The findings from Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis (ESDA) revealed that per capita CO2 emissions are not randomly distributed, as well as identified a number of countries that emit more than the other countries, namely, United States, Canada, Australia, Bahrain, Brunei, Kuwait, Luxembourg, United Arab Emirates, Trinidad and Tobago and Aruba. The ESDA analysis found the existence of clusters, showing that the low-low pattern occurs mainly in the poorest countries Asian and African, whereas the High High pattern appears mainly in European countries and countries in Southeast Asia. The econometric results, in principle, suggest the existence of a CKA in the form of "N" rather than "U" inverted, finding the following "turning points": US$ 12,262.44 and US$ 27,083.33. The other explanatory variables also showed the expected signs and all exhibited a highly significant coefficient. Around 80% of the sample did not have income above the “turning point” calculated, that is, the vast majority of countries are in the first upward part curve, revealing that in the range of income observed for the 167 countries, many have a curve monotonically increasing. This seems to confirm and illustrate the global nature of the carbon dioxide impact, revealing that there is little incentive for nations takes unilateral actions to reduce their emissions, as well as multilateral actions are being developed slowly. Another important issue is the negative coefficient, and statistically significant, for the dummy variables of the countries that have ratified the Kyoto Protocol, showing the importance of international agreements on reducing the overall amount of per capita carbon emission. Therefore, economic growth alone cannot replace policies that aspire to reducing CO2 emissions. This result suggests that international policies can help reduce GHG emissions, but we need more countries to commit such reduction. Therefore, economic growth alone does not guarantee a cure for the problems related to the environment. Environmental policies have key role in reversing the trajectory of pollutants that follow the CKA.

Currently, China is facing a challenge of sustainable development. The worsening air quality and increasing haze days in Beijing and many other cities in China have exerted serious health impacts and an economic toll. Pollution control and emission reduction have become an urgent issue that Chinese governments need to tackle. Hence, stricter Environmental laws and Clean Air Plans have been published and implemented in recent years in China. The developed countries had experienced the similar industrial development accompanying by air pollution problem during the middle of last century. Environmental legislating against helped many developed countries solve the pollution and achieved positive EKC trend – air quality improvements along with continuous economic growth. The thesis tries to study the previous lessons and experiences on pollution abatement from some developed countries and find what lesson’s China can draw from them on pollution control and changing towards a sustainable development. The thesis adopts a multi-scientific study method including case studies, economic, technological, legal and institutional analysis. The pollution abatement cases are from the US and UK, because historically the serious air smog episodes due to industrialization had happened in many cities of the two countries, which are like what is happening in China now. Case studies compare the pollution problem in Beijing, Los Angeles and London, and focus on how environmental laws work for emission reduction. The study results show that the economic phase in China now is close to the EKC turning point and is at similar phase comparing to the historical pollution treatment stages during the middle of last century in the US and UK. However, the positive EKC trend does not inevitably come without strong environmental legislation, technological development and economic-social institution sustainability transformation. The implication for China is that the current pollution control laws and its implementation in China at the crucial moment would most likely decide the future environmental, economic, and social situation in China. Loose environmental laws might cause environmental indulgence, while implementation of scientific environmental laws and standards can work effectively on emission reduction and enhancing technology and economic development at the same time. And the scientific based legislation skills from developed countries provide a good lesson to be drawn for China on how to make the laws and standards.

nÃo hà / Esse trabalho teve por objetivo analisar a desigualdade de renda entre os municÃpios do estado do Piauà no perÃodo compreendido entre 1995 e 2007, no qual se testou, inicialmente, a validade da hipÃtese da curva de Kuznets e da convergÃncia da renda per capita. Em seguida fez-se uma anÃlise da desigualdade de renda a partir da decomposiÃÃo do Ãndice de Theil, considerando-se os fatores renda, gÃnero, raÃa, educaÃÃo e nÃvel de desenvolvimento. Concluiu-se que as condiÃÃes necessÃrias e suficientes de convergÃncia sÃo atendidas, bem como a hipÃtese do U-invertido da curva de Kuznets. Estima-se que o Piauà necessitaria de 27 anos para reduzir a desigualdade à metade entre seus municÃpios, a uma velocidade de convergÃncia de 0,2889. A desigualdade de gÃnero declinou ao longo do perÃodo e a educaÃÃo à a variÃvel que mais influencia a desigualdade no estado, seguida pela variÃvel inter-racial. O efeito da educaÃÃo sobre a desigualdade à significantemente realÃada quando a decomposiÃÃo distingue os municÃpios mais e menos desenvolvidos. / This dissertation aimed to analyze income inequality amongst the municipalities of the state of Piaui in the period 1995 â 2007 by testing, initially, the validity of the Kuznetsâ curve hypothesis and convergence of per capita income. Besides, it was analyzed a decomposition of Theil index based upon the factors: income, gender, race, education and development stage. It was concluded that the necessary and sufficient conditions of convergence are met, as well as the hypothesis of U-inverted of Kuznetsâ curve. It is estimated that the state of Piaui would need 27 years to reduce inequality in half between its municipalities, at a speed of convergence of 0.2889. Inequality due to gender declined along the period and education is the variable that most influences the income difference in the state, followed by the factor race. The effect of education on the inequality is significantly enhanced as municipalities are distinguished between those more and less developed.

China has been experiencing great economic development and fast urbanisation since its reforms and opening-up policy in 1978. However, these changes are reliant on consumption of primary energy, especially coal, characterised by high pollution and low efficiency. China’s greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with carbon dioxide (CO2) being the most significant contributor, have also been increasing rapidly in the past three decades. Responding to both domestic challenges and international pressure regarding energy, climate change and environment, the Chinese government has made a point of addressing climate change since the early 2000s. This thesis provides a comprehensive analysis of China’s CO2 emissions and policy instruments for mitigating climate change. In the analysis, China’s CO2 emissions in recent decades were reviewed and the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis examined. Using the mostly frequently studied macroeconomic factors and time-series data for the period of 1980-2008, the existence of an EKC relationship between CO2 per capita and GDP per capita was verified. However, China’s CO2 emissions will continue to grow over coming decades and the turning point in overall CO2 emissions will appear in 2078 according to a crude projection. More importantly, CO2 emissions will not spontaneously decrease if China continues to develop its economy without mitigating climate change. On the other hand, CO2 emissions could start to decrease if substantial efforts are made. China’s present mitigation target, i.e. to reduce CO2 emissions per unit of GDP by 40-45% by 2020 compared with the 2005 level, was then evaluated. Three business-as-usual (BAU) scenarios were developed and compared with the level of emissions according to the mitigation target. The calculations indicated that decreasing the CO2 intensity of GDP by 40-45% by 2020 is a challenging but hopeful target. To study the policy instruments for climate change mitigation in China, domestic measures and parts of international cooperation adopted by the Chinese government were reviewed and analysed. Domestic measures consist of administration, regulatory and economic instruments, while China’s participation in international agreements on mitigating climate change is mainly by supplying certified emission reductions (CERs) to industrialised countries under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). The most well-known instruments, i.e. taxes and emissions trading, are both at a critical stage of discussion before final implementation. Given the necessity for hybrid policies, it is important to optimise the combination of different policy instruments used in a given situation. The Durban Climate Change Conference in 2011 made a breakthrough decision that the second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol would begin on 1 January 2013 and emissions limitation or reduction objectives for industrialised countries in the second period were quantified. China was also required to make more substantial commitments on limiting its emissions. The Chinese government announced at the Durban Conference that China will focus on the current mitigation target regarding CO2 intensity of GDP by 2020 and will conditionally accept a world-wide legal agreement on climate change thereafter. However, there will be no easy way ahead for China. / QC 20120424