This dissertation develops a theory about the consolidation of state legitimacy given transformations in food security. Food security has moved from a national food maximization effort to the provision of food to households and individuals, regardless of the production source. This definitional change was triggered by urbanization, industrialization of agriculture and liberalization of trade. These dynamics altered the formula for balance and control of a country’s territory; as agricultural output moved into a global context, urban centers became less reliant on its periphery for sustenance and thus governments have fewer incentives to provide governance of any quality to rural areas. Hence, the expansion of industrialized production has led to an increasing volume of international food exchanges and reliance on transnational networks for food provision. This, I argue, produced a decoupling of rural and urban areas, yielding a new form of governance in the periphery, which relies on negative legitimacy and the expansion of large-scale agriculture under public-private partnerships. This dissertation challenges conventional approaches to modern state consolidation in the sense that the monopoly of violence in the territory is no longer the core of state legitimacy. Rather, alternatives now exist that make possible the consolidation of state political power. Methodologically, this dissertation follows the critical case study approach. While it may sacrifice some external validity in terms of generalizability, it maximizes internal validity through careful process tracing. By tracing the trajectory of rural areas for state formation, agricultural policies, the concept of rural citizen and the interaction between rural and urban areas, this dissertation expresses in-depth knowledge of policy outcomes due to the change in food security. Utilizing findings from Colombia, before and after the 1990´s, this dissertation illustrates the impacts of a change in the concept of food security and its effects on the administrative capacity in rural areas. Findings indicate that large scale agricultural policies and violence concentrated rural land ownership into export productive commodities and altered the structure of rural governance. While food security initiatives and policies has been a boon to world health, this dissertation illustrates how it has also brought about changes in state consolidation.

verige står inför en bostadsbrist och behöver under detta decennium bygga tiotusentals bostäder årligen. Det är kommunerna som har det huvudsakliga genomförandeansvaret för att säkerställa bostadsförsörjningen i landet. Översiktsplanen och detaljplanen är de vedertagna verktyg kommuner reglerar markanvändningen med. Därutöver förfogar kommuner över markanvisningar, den process som sker när kommunal mark överförs till byggaktörer för byggprojekt. Denna process kan i regel delas upp i två kategorier utifrån hur byggaktörer utses. Dels anbudsanvisningar då förslag jämförs mot varandra, dels direktanvisningar då konkurrensutsättning inte äger rum. Denna studie undersöker hur dessa två förfarandetyper används för att bidra med olika effekter i samband med markanvisningar för bostadsprojekt. Studien undersöker vilka tillkommande drivkrafter och motiveringar som legat bakom tilldelningarna för att bidra till en mer detaljerad bild över den tidiga kommunala planeringen av bostäder. Arbetet bygger på ett blandat metodiskt tillvägagångssätt. Huvudmetoden är en tematisk analys av motiveringar för beslutade markanvisningar från 53 kommuner under 2021. Studien består därtill av en inramande bakgrundsstudie och en fördjupande intervjustudie med fem av kommunerna. Studiens utgångspunkt är att identifiera övergripande trender i hur markanvisningar för bostäder motiveras. Vidare undersöks hur väl motiveringarna svarar mot förväntade effekter av markanvisningar genom ett teoretiskt ramverk om formella och informella processer. Slutligen appliceras ett perspektiv om kommunal styrning för att därmed undersöka motiv och drivkrafter bakom markanvisningarna. Utifrån motiveringarna påvisar studien en trend att anbudsanvisningar i högre grad leder till att projektidéer premieras medan direktanvisningar fokuserar på att identifiera en önskvärd byggaktör. Den fördjupade studien bidrar med kompletterande belägg för att aktörens förmåga kan vara drivande i båda förfarandetyperna. Vidare visar analysen att anbuds- och direktanvisningar svarar för totalt sett i princip lika stora bostadsvolymer, där direktanvisningar står för ett något högre snitt per markanvisning. Följaktligen resoneras att kommuner tenderar att prioritera ett säkerställande av genomförande i syfte att möta sina tillväxtambitioner och bostadspolitiska mål. Andra mervärden såsom hållbarhetsaspekter kan vara en del av, men är överlag inte huvudsaklig drivkraft inom markanvisningsprocesser. Slutligen presenteras ett antal idéer för potentiellt intressanta vidare studier i ämnet. / Sweden is facing a housing shortage, calling for the construction of tens of thousands of additional homes annually during this decade. The municipalities carry the main responsibility to guarantee a satisfactory housing supply. The comprehensive plan and the detailed development plan are the conventional tools by which municipalities regulate land use. In addition, municipalities may utilize land allocations, the process that takes place when municipal land is transferred to housing developers for construction projects. This process can usually be divided into two categories. Tender allocations, where proposals are compared to each other, and direct allocations, where competition does not take place. This study examines how these two variants of land allocations are used to contribute different effects for housing projects. The study examines the additional driving forces and motivations behind the land allocations, seeking to contribute a more detailed picture of the early municipal planning practices regarding housing. The work is based on a mixed methodological approach. The main method is a thematic analysis of motivations for decided land allocations based on a dataset containing land allocation activities from 53 municipalities during 2021. The study also consists of a framing background study and an in-depth interview study with five of the municipalities. The starting point of the study is to describe overall trends based on motivations. Furthermore, the study investigates how well the motivations correspond to the expected effects of land allocations through a theoretical framework on formal and informal process. Finally, a municipal governance perspective is applied to examine the motives and driving forces behind the land allocations. Based on the motivations, the study argues that tender allocations to a greater extent result in project ideas being rewarded. Meanwhile, direct allocations focus on identifying a suitable housing developer. The in-depth study indicates that assurance of the developers’ capability is a leading influence in both allocation variants. Furthermore, the analysis shows that tender allocations and direct allocations account for an essentially equal total of housing volumes, where direct allocations contain a slightly higher average housing per land allocation. Consequently, it is reasoned that municipalities tend to prioritise realisation of housing development in order to meet their growth and housing policy goals. Other complementary values such as sustainability aspects can in turn be part of, but are in general not driving in, the land allocation process. Finally, several ideas are presented for potentially interesting further studies on the subject.

En kommunal markanvisning kan liknas vid ett OPS-liknande förhållande mellan kommun och bostadsutvecklare, där den senare kan betraktas ha en option att få köpa kommunal mark. Arbetet undersöker och analyserar de olika processer som leder fram till att bostadsutvecklare får tillgång till mark via kommunala markanvisningar i Stockholms län. Studien undersöker dels ett kommunalt perspektiv, vilket behandlar själva tilldelningen av mark. Därutöver undersöks också bostadsutvecklarnas perspektiv, vilket behandlar olika företags tilldelningar. Studien innefattar en litteraturstudie, en innehållsanalys utifrån ett unikt dataset som baseras på sekundärdata från kommuner, samt hypotesprövning med hjälp av chi-två-test. Litteraturstudien undersöker markanvisningar i en historisk kontext, därefter hur markanvisningsprocessen betraktas idag både ur ett nationellt och ett internationellt perspektiv. Sekundärdata till innehållsanalysen består av information kring samtliga tilldelade markanvisningar i elva kommuner i Stockholms län mellan åren 2015-2017. Informationen är hämtad efter kontakt med kommunerna ifråga. Studien betraktar markanvisningar som direkt jämförbara observationer. Markanvisningarna är indelade i direkt- och anbudsanvisningar. Hypotesprövning med hjälp av chi-två-test har genomförts för att testa olika uppställda hypoteser om vilka typer av företag som tilldelats vilken typ av markanvisning. Studien visar att kommuner arbetar på olika sätt när de tilldelar markanvisningar. Kommuner har olika förutsättningar som utmynnar i olika arbetssätt. Anbudsanvisningar har högre markpris än direktanvisningar, vilket kan bero på olika saker. Spelregler i anbudsanvisningar är både otydliga och oförutsägbara. Otydligheten beror främst på att en stor mängd bedömningskriterier har använts i förhållande till antalet anvisningar. Oförutsägbarheten är främst ett resultat av att bedömningskriterierna har haft en tydlig viktning, med angiven poäng eller procent, i endast hälften av fallen. Pris bedöms generellt som det viktigaste bedömningskriteriet i anbudsanvisningar. Olika typer av företag är olika framgångsrika i olika typer av markanvisningar. Omsättning och börsnotering har statistisk signifikant påverkan på detta. Allmännyttiga företag tilldelas fler markanvisningar än andra, men i en historisk kontext tilldelas de som grupp färre lägenheter jämfört med tidigare decennium på sent 1900-tal. Stora företag agerar irrationellt vid anbudsanvisningar. Många bostadsutvecklare visar kortsiktigt intresse för markanvisningar, där två av tre aktörer aldrig fått någon mark. / A Swedish municipal land allocation can be regarded as an option for a developer to purchase municipal land. This study investigates and analyses the various processes that lead to the availability of land for housing developers via municipal land allocations in Stockholm County. The study examines partly a municipal perspective, which deals with the actual allocation of land. In addition, a housing developer’s perspective is investigated, which deals with different corporate allocations.  The study includes a literature study, a content analysis based on a unique dataset based on secondary data from municipalities, and hypothesis testing using chi-squared tests. The literature study investigates land allocations in a historical context, then how the process is considered today, both from a national and an international perspective. Secondary data for the content analysis consists of information about all land allocations in eleven municipalities in Stockholm County between the years 2015-2017. The information is obtained after contact with the municipalities in question. The study regards land allocations as directly comparable observations. The land allocations are divided into direct and tender allocations. Hypothesis testing using chi-squared tests has been conducted to test different hypotheses about which types of companies that get different types of land allocations.  The study shows that municipalities work differently with land allocations. Municipalities have different conditions that emerge in different ways of working. Tender allocations have higher land prices than direct allocations, which may mean different things. “Game rules” in tender allocations are both unclear and unpredictable. They are unclear because of a total use of a large amount of assessment criteria in relation to the number of land allocations. They are unpredictable because of the lack of weighted criteria, with specified points or percentages, in only half of the cases. Price is generally assessed as the most important criterion in tender allocations. Different types of companies are different successful in different types of allocations. Turnover and listing have statistically significant impact on this. Public utility companies are awarded more land allocations than others, but in a historical context, they are assigned fewer apartments compared to previous decades in the late 1900s. Large companies act irrationally with tender allocations. Many housing developers show short-term interest in land allocations, where two out of three have never been awarded any land.

Student Number: 0514015W - MA research report - School of Social Sciences - Faculty of Humanities / This study aimed to investigate land tenure problems experienced by the youth of the rural areas of Rwanda. The study targeted the young men and women who have experienced several land problems in terms of land access and ownership, in the district of Kamonyi. The youth’s land tenure problems, their nature, their causes and their effects on youth’s lives were collected and analysed. The study also aimed to analyse the National Land Policy document of 2004 by looking at three aspects namely the land redistribution, group settlement, and the participation of other different government departments, civil society and youth in particular in the policy process in order to see how it deals with land tenure problems facing the rural youth. In order to collect and analyse data, this study used a qualitative method. The use of this method was motivated by its quality of providing information that one can not get with a questionnaire. Moreover, the qualitative method enables to collect and analyse in-depth information on a smaller group of respondents and enables the researcher to participate in data collection. Documentary analysis, observation, in-depth interviews and the focus group discussion were the techniques used to gather data. The study population was made of 20 young people who have experienced the land problems and 10 key informants. The concept of participation, the human needs, and the resource scarcity and conflict theories framed this work. Participation means that all the beneficiaries of a project must be involved in the decision-making, implementation and control process of the programme. As the concept of participation highlights that, problems of poverty among people, specifically young people, are solved when they are involved in planning and implementation of projects that affect their lives, the same concept was used in the current study to investigate whether rural young people have been involved in the land reform process. Youth participation should be taken into account for achieving positive development. When youth are involved in decision-making, they experience social justice as full citizens and their problems are quickly solved. Participation should be achieved from below whereby all members of the community participate in the decision-making on the projects that affect their lives. In other words, developmental projects must take into account the needs and views of beneficiaries and the latter must be empowered in order to achieve effective results. Many development policies fail in Africa and in Rwanda due to the lack of involving beneficiaries or taking into account their views. In addition, the natural resources must be equally shared by all the citizens without any social inequality, in order to avoid intractable-conflicts. People’s basic needs should be met because where some basic needs such as water, land, education, healthcare, shelter are not given, conflicts arise. Where resources are not sufficient to fit with all people in need, the properties’ ownership should be collective rather than individual. The key findings of the study show that the ways of land access and ownership in Kamonyi are mainly, land acquisition through inheritance, through land purchase through land gifted, and through land allocation by the government. Youth experience mainly the problem of landlessness due to the family land scarcity, inequalities between the elites and the poor in terms of land ownership, the increasing number of heirs since women have been included among heirs, the problem of polygamy and the lack of a known father. Many households have no title-deeds, some male children and their fathers become reluctant to recognise women’s inheritance rights, conflicts around land boundaries between neighbours and conflicts between children and their parents due to the lack of inheritance become endless. The national Land Policy of 2004 that intends to solve all the above land tenure problems bears contradictions related to its aim of achieving equity and equality and productivity at the same time. While the policy intends to establish a land tenure system that guarantees tenure security for all Rwandans, it also states that not every Rwandan will possess a plot of land of his own. In addition, it states that former refugees, professionals pastoralists and farmers, and those who will be able to apply for land showing interest in land development will be given land through the redistribution programme, which means that those who are not able to make a consistent application for land or do not belong to former refugees families will not acquire land. In addition the policy process has not been participative at large; rather it has been limited in the hands of elites, rural dwellers especially youth have not been consulted while they are familiar with land related problems. The group settlement is a good alternative but it bears ambiguity because it is silent on the youth’s lives and on who is accountable to build houses in villages.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-25T20:20:01Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Rosangela da Silva Lima.pdf: 5756227 bytes, checksum: 832dc97550a5584bbb925194c06334a2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-12-11 / This study aims to analyse the land policy of the city of Santo Andre, from the management of Mayor Celso Daniel, begining in 1989. As reference, it was taken the issue of Capuava Slum, around the attempts to get the division of lands enrollment at the qualified notary s office, the understanding of policies and administrative practices, the gap between the law and the reality as viewed in the regularization process of the slum. The research conclusion addresses how the new legal urban planning instruments, which allows the land regularization, could be useful in the case of Capuava Slum / Este estudo analisa a política fundiária da cidade de Santo André, a partir da gestão do prefeito Celso Daniel, que teve início a partir de 1989. Para tanto, tomou-se como referência a problemática do Núcleo Capuava ao tentar o registro do parcelamento do solo junto aos cartórios imobiliários; destacando-se a busca pelo entendimento das intervenções políticas e das práticas administrativas, bem como o descompasso entre norma jurídica e realidade, evidenciado nos processos de regularização da favela. A conclusão da pesquisa aborda o quanto os instrumentos da nova ordem jurídica urbanística, que permite a regularização fundiária, foram incorporados no caso da Favela Capuava

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-26T14:52:55Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Rosangela da Silva Lima.pdf: 5756227 bytes, checksum: 832dc97550a5584bbb925194c06334a2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-12-11 / This study aims to analyse the land policy of the city of Santo Andre, from the management of Mayor Celso Daniel, begining in 1989. As reference, it was taken the issue of Capuava Slum, around the attempts to get the division of lands enrollment at the qualified notary s office, the understanding of policies and administrative practices, the gap between the law and the reality as viewed in the regularization process of the slum. The research conclusion addresses how the new legal urban planning instruments, which allows the land regularization, could be useful in the case of Capuava Slum / Este estudo analisa a política fundiária da cidade de Santo André, a partir da gestão do prefeito Celso Daniel, que teve início a partir de 1989. Para tanto, tomou-se como referência a problemática do Núcleo Capuava ao tentar o registro do parcelamento do solo junto aos cartórios imobiliários; destacando-se a busca pelo entendimento das intervenções políticas e das práticas administrativas, bem como o descompasso entre norma jurídica e realidade, evidenciado nos processos de regularização da favela. A conclusão da pesquisa aborda o quanto os instrumentos da nova ordem jurídica urbanística, que permite a regularização fundiária, foram incorporados no caso da Favela Capuava

Driven by many factors, the water supply services (streamflow and groundwater) of many rivers in the dryland area of China have declined significantly. This aggravates the inherent severe water shortages and results in increased severity in the water use conflicts that are threatening sustainable development in the region. Innovative strategies towards more water-efficient land management are vital for enhancing water quantity to ensure water supply security. A key step in the successful development and implementation of such measures is to understand the response of hydrological processes and related services to changes in land management and climate. To this end, it was decided to investigate these processes and responses in the upper reaches of the Jing River (Jinghe), an important meso-scale watershed in the middle reaches of the Yellow River on the Loess Plateau (NW China). It has been shown that vegetation restoration efforts (planting trees and grass) are effective in controlling soil erosion on the Loess Plateau. Shifts in land cover/use lead to modifications of soil physical properties. Yet, it remains unclear if the hydraulic properties have also been improved by vegetation restoration. A better understanding of how vegetation restoration alters soil structure and related soil hydraulic properties, such as water conductivity and soil water storage capacity, is necessary. Three adjacent sites, with comparable soil texture, soil type, and topography but contrasting land cover (Black locust forest, grassland, and cropland), were investigated in a small catchment in the upstream Jinghe watershed (near Jingchuan, Gansu province). Seasonal variations of soil hydraulic properties in topsoil and subsoil were examined. Results revealed that the type of land use had a significant impact on field-saturated, near-saturated hydraulic conductivity, and soil water characteristics. Specifically, conversion from cropland to grass or forests promotes infiltration capacity as a result of increased saturated hydraulic conductivity, air capacity, and macroporosity. Moreover, conversion from cropland to forest tends to promote the formation of mesopores that increase soil water storage capacity. Tillage in cropland temporarily created well-structured topsoil, but also compacted subsoil, as indicated by low subsoil saturated hydraulic conductivity, air capacity, and plant available water capacity. An impact of land cover conversion on unsaturated hydraulic conductivities was not identified, indicating that changes in land cover do not affect functional meso- and microporosity. Changes in soil hydraulic properties and associated hydrological processes and services due to soil conservation efforts need to be considered, should soil conservation measures be implemented in water-limited regions for sustaining adequate water supply. To differentiate between the impacts of land management and climate change on streamflow, the variation of annual streamflow, precipitation, potential evapotranspiration, and climatic water balance in a small catchment of the upstream Jinghe watershed (near Pingliang, Gansu province) was examined during the period of 1955 – 2004. During this time the relative contributions of changes in land management and climate to the reduction of streamflow were estimated. A statistically significant decreasing trend of -1.14 mm y-1 in annual streamflow was detected. Furthermore, an abrupt streamflow reduction due to afforestation and construction of terraces and check-dams was identified around 1980. Remarkably, 74% of the total reduction in mean annual streamflow can be attributed to the soil conservation measures. Among various conservation measures, streamflow could be considerably reduced by afforestation and terracing (including damland creation), due to their low contribution to water yield. In contrast, slope farmland and grassland can maintain a certain level of water supply services due to higher runoff coefficients. According to a meta-analysis of the published studies on the Loess Plateau, the impact of changes in land management on annual streamflow appears to diminish with increasing catchment size while the impact of climate change appears uniform across space. This means that there is a dependency between the catchment size and the response of hydrological processes to environmental change. At least at the local scale, it appears that well-considered land management may help to ensure the water supply services. Due to limited surface water availability, groundwater is an essential water source for supporting ecosystem and socio-economic development in the dryland region. However, the groundwater process is susceptible and vulnerable to changes in climate and landscape (i.e., land cover and form) that in turn can result in profound adverse consequences on water supply services in water-limited regions. In addition, an improved understanding of the response of groundwater related processes to natural and artificial disturbances is likely to ensure more secure and more sustainable governance and management of such regions, as well as better options for adapting to climate change. Yet, this topic has seldom been researched, especially in areas that have already experienced large-scale alteration in landscape and are located in dryland regions, such as the Loess Plateau. Therefore, an investigation of the baseflow variation along the landscape change was conducted. The average annual baseflow has significantly decreased at catchment scale during the period of 1962 – 2002 without any obvious significant change in climate. At decadal scale, the reduction accounts for approximately 9% in the 1970s, 48% in the 1980s, and 92% in the 1990s, while the baseflow index declines averaging 5%, 16% and 67%, respectively. All of the monthly baseflow levels dropped at varying rates except in January, among which July was the most severe in terms of both magnitude (-4.17) and slope (-0.09 mm y-1). In perspective of landscape change, landform change (terrace and check-dam) tends to reduce baseflow by reallocation of surface fluxes and retention for crop growth causing limited deep drainage in other areas. Land cover change (i.e., afforestation) reduced the baseflow to a larger extent by enhanced evapotranspiration and thus hampered deep drainage as suggested by the soil moisture measurement underneath. The study indicates that knowledge about baseflow formation on catchment scale needs further improvement. Integrated soil conservation and water management for optimizing landscape structure and function in order to balance soil (erosion) and water (supply) related hydrological ecosystem services is vital. The governing processes to the changes of water-supply-services-related hydrological process (e.g., streamflow) are assumed to be different across space. To this end, the factors controlling streamflow were investigated on both a small and large scale. Streamflow in small catchments was found to be mainly controlled by precipitation and land cover type. On a larger scale, evaporative demand was found to be another additional major driving force. Hydrological modeling is a frequently used tool for the assessment of impacts of land use and climate change on water balance and water fluxes. However, application of the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model in the upstream Jinghe watershed was unsuccessful due to difficulties in calibration. The inability of the SWAT model to take the influence of terraces on steep slopes into consideration and the method how to calculate lateral flow were the main reasons for unsatisfactory calibration, at least for the current version of SWAT used in this study. Alternatively, Budyko’s frameworks were applied to predict the annual and long-term streamflow. However, the effect of changes in land management (e.g., afforestation) on streamflow could not be assessed due to a lack of vegetation factors. Therefore, an empirical analysis tool was derived based on an existing relationship for estimation. This method was found to be the most effective in reproducing the annual and long-term streamflow. The incorporation of temporal changes in land cover and form in the approach enables the estimation of the possible impact of soil conservation measures (e.g., afforestation or terracing). The importance of adaptive land management strategies for mitigating water shortage and securing the water supply services on the Loess Plateau was highlighted. A cross-sectoral view of the multiple services offered by managed ecosystems at different spatial scales under changing environments needs to be integrated to improve adaptive land management policy. In a water limited environment, such as the Loess Plateau, multiple ecosystem services including hydrological services need to be balanced with minimum trade-offs. This can only be achieved when management is based on a holistic understanding of the interdependencies among various ecosystem services and how they might change under alternative land management.

No description available.

Orientadora: Profª Drª Silvana Zioni / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal do ABC, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Planejamento e Gestão do Território, 2014. / As grandes cidades brasileiras são caracterizadas pela existência de significativos contingentes populacionais em situação de precariedade habitacional, resultado do modelo de desenvolvimento excludente característico do desenvolvimento do capitalismo nos países periféricos. A partir da década de 1980 surge o conceito de ZEIS ¿ Zona Especial de Interesse Social, que é um instrumento urbanístico implementado em áreas ocupadas com habitações precárias, ou a demarcação de áreas vazias, subutilizadas ou não utilizadas, voltadas prioritariamente ao acesso à moradia e à terra urbanizada para populações de baixa renda. A ZEIS constitui-se em um dos primeiros dispositivos institucionais de política urbana no país voltados à diminuição da desigualdade social urbana. Através do estudo da implementação das ZEIS de vazios no território do Grande ABC, buscou-se identificar os avanços concretos realizados com base nessa política e suas limitações e desafios na atuação do Estado na solução das questões fundiárias e de democratização do território. No cenário atual de crescimento das favelas e ocupações irregulares, por um lado, e ampliação da oferta de moradia através de políticas públicas de incentivo à obtenção de imóveis, por outro, os instrumentos urbanísticos voltados à diminuição da desigualdade urbana podem contribuir para democratizar o acesso à terra urbanizada. Neste sentido, esta pesquisa pretende avaliar o alcance e a efetividade da implementação de políticas públicas para contribuir criticamente para seu aperfeiçoamento, tendo como recorte a Região do Grande ABC. / Brazil's big cities are characterized by the existence of substantial groups of people in precarious housing situation, result of exclusionary characteristic of capitalist development in the model of peripheral countries. Social Interest Special Zone (ZEIS: Zonas Especiais de Interesse Social), which is an tool implemented in urban empty, underused or unused, or busy areas with substandard housing, focusing primarily on access to housing and land. The ZEIS, created in 1980, constitutes one of the first institutional arrangements for urban policy in the country aimed at reducing urban social inequality. Through the study of the implementation of ZEIS empty in the territory in the Greater ABC sought to identify the progress made based on that policy and its limitations and challenges in the performance of the state in resolving land issues and democratization of the country. In the current scenario of growth of slums and irregular occupations, on the one hand, and expanding the supply of housing through public policies conducive to obtaining property, on the other, aimed at reducing urban inequality, urban instruments can help to democratize access to urbanized land. Thus, this research aims to assess the scope and effectiveness of the implementation of public policies to critically contribute to its improvement, with the spacial cutout in the Greater ABC Region.

Rural development is a key policy area in developing countries. Its basic premise boils down to improving the economic well-being and quality of life of rural people. Best practices regarding rural development in developing countries, including Benin, China, Korea and Rwanda, that are known to have been relatively successful in reducing poverty and diversifying the rural economy showed that strong governance, institutional capabilities, active rural communities, and most importantly funding, are all essential for successful rural development. Moreover, land reform and investment in agriculture, infrastructure, education and health play a crucial role in the early stages of rural development. The aim of this study was to examine the concept of rural development as well as policy measures and best practices relating to rural development in order to formulate a rural development strategy for the rural areas of Limpopo Province. To achieve its research objectives, the study used a qualitative research method and secondary data analysis. Before 1995, rural development in South Africa was neglected, resulting in underdevelopment and impoverishment in rural areas. Post-1994, policies for rural development were adopted by the democratic government to improve the economic well-being of people living in rural communities. However, this had thus far limited success as high levels of poverty and inequalities in rural areas still prevails. Those highly affected were rural people in Limpopo Province. In 2018, Limpopo was the most predominantly rural province in South Africa, with over 80% of the population living in rural areas. The study classified Limpopo’s local municipalities into three types of areas, namely predominantly rural area (a local municipality is classified as predominantly rural area if the share of rural population in the local municipal area is above 50%), significantly rural area (that is, a local municipality where the share of rural population in the local area represents between 15% and 49% of the local area’s total population), and predominantly urban area (that is, a local municipality where the share of rural population in the local area is below 15%). Out of 25 local municipalities in Limpopo, 19 were predominantly rural areas, five were significantly rural areas and one was predominantly urban area. Findings show that, in rural areas of Limpopo, there was the prevalence of lower-wage jobs, lower educational attainment, a higher share of low-income households, and more than half of the population depended on government's social grants (including old age grant) and remittances as their income sources. Analysis indicates that educational attainment, household income levels, consumption expenditure and investment tend to be relatively lower, while the unemployment rate is higher, in predominantly rural areas. The economic structure is changing as the share of the primary sector in total Gross Value Added (GVA) is slowly declining, while that of the tertiary sector is gradually increasing. Regarding the contributions to the GVA and employment by sector in predominantly rural areas, agriculture contributed less than 3% to the total GVA, yet it is one of the top employers, contributing 13% of employment. Although mining contributed the most (23,7%) to the total GVA, it only employed 4% of the workforce. To address challenges in rural areas, a rural development strategy for Limpopo Province should contain policy tools that will promote infrastructure development for better access to education, communication, transport, safe water and other basic facilities. It should also encourage capital formation in rural enterprises; promote multi-sectoral development involving reviving agriculture, developing tourism and manufacturing sectors; and promote agro-processing and downstream mineral beneficiation; improve support and access to funding for rural enterprises; and promote the development of the green economy to create decent job opportunities. Access to land and land tenure security are a necessity to stimulate investment needed to accelerate rural development. / Economics / M. Com. (Economics)