The aim of the study is to provide an account of the present state of Portuguese in the Johannesburg Portuguese community, and to identify factors influencing the maintenance of, and shift from the mother tongue. South African society necessitates a knowledge and daily use of English, and sometimes Afrikaans. Literacy and proficiency in the Portuguese mother tongue is therefore rapidly decreasing, especially amongst the third generation. Despite this decline, certain factors play a role in maintaining Portuguese. The most important factors in the maintenance of the mother tongue are education, cultural activities, contact with Portugal, parental influence and positive attitudes. If measures are not taken, and an awareness created within the community of the need to create a situation of stable bilingualism, the Portuguese language will continue to be eroded. / 0 objectivo desta tese e analisar o nivel actual da lingua portuguesa, na comunidade Portuguesa em Joanesburgo, e identificar os factores que influenciam a manutenc;ao e ou o afastamento da lingua materna. A sociedade sul-africana necessita de urn conhecimento diario da lingua inglesa e, par vezes da lingua afrikaans. Por conseguinte, a capacidade de ler e escrever fluentemente na lingua portuguesa esta rapidamente a desaparecer, especialmente na 3a gerac;ao. Apesar deste declinio, existem ainda determinados factores que contribuem para a sobrevivencia da lingua portuguesa na comunidade. Os factores mais importantes sao: a educac;ao, as actividades culturais, o contacto com Portugal, a influencia familiar - atitudes positivas tomadas pela propria comunidade. Se nao forem criadas medidas pelos portugueses, que garantam a consciencializac; ao da lingua materna e urn determinado bilinguismo, a lingua portuguesa acasani par desaparecer na Africa do Sul. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / M.A. (Linguistics)

Even though language formed part of the post-apartheid agenda which was set out to redress the ills of the pre-democratic South Africa, there are still concerns that the status of indigenous languages has not been elevated. Using decolonial work of Steve Biko, Ngugi wa Thiong’o and Frantz Fanon as theoretical lens, I aimed at exploring perceptions of key informants on post-apartheid language policies, young South Africans and parents /guardians toward indigenous languages. In-depth and narrative interviews were used to collect data from language policy key informants and young South Africans who started schooling after 1994 and focus group discussions with parents/guardians were held. Thematic, narrative and discourse analyses were used to analyse the data. Indigenous languages were perceived by participants as having an inferior status compared to languages of oppression and that was attributed to inferiority complex, lack of will from government to promote these languages and absent voice of indigenous language speakers in the fight for the status of indigenous languages. South Africa’s language diversity was also perceived as a challenge believed to contribute toward the difficulty of properly implementing post-apartheid language policies. The study results suggest a need for a stronger civil society which would assist in the dismantling of categorising languages as superior and inferior. Furthermore, the results point to a need for a more humanising approach which treats indigenous languages with respect. / Psychology / Ph. D. (Psychology)

Summaries in English and Greek / Keywords in English and Greek / This thesis explores the phenomenon of language shift and maintenance in the Greek community of Johannesburg, which is the largest Greek community in South Africa. The main aim of the study is to provide an account of the factors which assist in maintaining the Greek language which is under pressure from English, the dominant official language in the country. This study draws on the theoretical and methodological frameworks established in the many studies conducted on the Greek communities in the USA and Australia. The Greek community has played a significant role in assisting to shape the development of South Africa. Up until the 1980s, they were subject to discrimination from the host society; consequently, many immigrants lived together in certain suburbs and founded their own churches, clubs and schools. These factors contributed greatly to the retention of their language and culture. Since the late 1980s, the discriminatory attitude of the host society toward the immigrant communities has decreased notably, and subsequently, there has been an increased integration and assimilation into the host society. The process of assimilation has resulted, inter alia, in an increased use of English, the dominant language of the host society, consequently the retention of the mother tongue has declined. A number of factors were identified as playing an important role in the maintenance of Greek: education, religion, family, language loyalty and socio-cultural activities; and, to a lesser extent, media and overseas visits. Education has played a key role in maintaining the language, in particular through the establishment of Greek day and afternoon schools. Despite a preference for bilingual church services, the Greek Orthodox Church continues to play a vital role in the maintenance of Greek. The family, loyalty towards the language and culture and a notable pride in being Greek, and participation in socio-cultural activities contribute significantly to the maintenance of the Greek language. Despite a marked shift towards English in the younger generation, the future of Greek in South Africa may be characterized by relatively stable bilingualism, provided that current trends continue. / Η παροφςα μελζτθ πραγματεφεται το φαινόμενο τθσ αλλαγισ και διατιρθςθσ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ ςτθν ελλθνικι κοινότθτα του Γιοχάνεςμπουργκ, θ οποία αποτελεί τθν μεγαλφτερθ κοινότθτα ςτο Γιοχάνεςμπουργκ. Ο κφριοσ ςκοπόσ τθσ διατριβισ, είναι να παρουςιάςει τουσ παράγοντεσ που ςυμβάλλουν ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ, θ οποία καταπιζηεται γλωςςικά από τθν Αγγλικι, τθν κυρίαρχθ και επίςθμθ γλϊςςα τθσ χϊρασ. Η μελζτθ αυτι αντλεί τουσ κεωρθτικοφσ και μεκοδολογικοφσ τθσ άξονεσ από τισ διάφορεσ μελζτεσ που ωσ αντικείμενό τουσ ζχουν τθν μελζτθ των ελλθνικϊν κοινοτιτων ςτισ Ηνωμζνεσ Πολιτείεσ και ςτθν Αυςτραλία. Η Ελλθνικι κοινότθτα ζχει παίξει ςθμαντικό υποβοθκθτικό ρόλο ςτθν πορεία τθσ εξζλιξθσ τθσ Νότιασ Αφρικισ. Μζχρι το 1980 ιταν αντικείμενο φυλετικισ διάκριςθσ από τθ χϊρα υποδοχισ με αποτζλεςμα πολλοί μετανάςτεσ να ηουν ομαδικά ςε ςυγκεκριμζνεσ περιοχζσ, ιδρφοντασ τισ δικζσ τουσ εκκλθςίεσ, ςυλλόγουσ και ςχολεία. Οι προαναφερόμενοι παράγοντεσ ςυνζβαλαν αιςκθτά ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ γλϊςςασ και του ελλθνικοφ πολιτιςμοφ. Από τα τζλθ του 1980, θ πολιτικι διακρίςεων λόγω φυλετικισ καταγωγισ από τθ χϊρα υποδοχισ προσ τισ μεταναςτευτικζσ ομάδεσ ζχει μειωκεί αιςκθτά ενϊ μετζπειτα παρατθρείται μια αυξθμζνθ ενςωμάτωςθ και αφομοίωςθ ςτθν χϊρα-οικοδεςπότθσ. Η διαδικαςία ενςωμάτωςθσ ςυντζλεςε, inter alia, ςτθν αφξθςθ τθσ χριςθσ τθσ αγγλικισ γλϊςςασ, τθν κυρίαρχθ γλϊςςα τθσ χϊρασ υποδοχισ με αποτζλεςμα να μειϊνεται θ διατιρθςθ τθσ μθτρικισ γλϊςςασ. Αναγνωρίςτθκε ζνασ αρικμόσ παραγόντων με ςθμαντικό ρόλο ωσ προσ τθ διατιρθςθ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ: θ παιδεία, θ κρθςκεία, θ οικογζνεια, θ αφοςίωςθ ςτθ γλϊςςα και οι κοινωνικό-πολιτιςμικζσ δραςτθριότθτεσ ενϊ ςε μικρότερο ποςοςτό, τα μαηικά μζςα και οι διεκνείσ επιςκζψεισ. Η εκπαίδευςθ ζχει παίξει ςθμαντικό ρόλο ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ γλϊςςασ ιδιαίτερα μζςω τθσ ίδρυςθσ ελλθνικϊν θμεριςιων και απογευματινϊν ςχολείων. Η Ελλθνικι Ορκόδοξθ Εκκλθςία ςυνεχίηει να παίηει ουςιϊδθ ρόλο ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ γλϊςςασ παρότι υπάρχει μια προτίμθςθ για τισ δίγλωςςεσ εκκλθςιαςτικζσ λειτουργίεσ. Η οικογζνεια, θ αφοςίωςθ ςτθν γλϊςςα και ςτον πολιτιςμό, θ εμφανισ υπερθφάνεια ωσ προσ τθν ελλθνικι ταυτότθτα και θ ςυμμετοχι ςε κοινωνικό-πολιτιςμικζσ δραςτθριότθτεσ επίςθσ ςυμβάλλουν αιςκθτά ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ. Παρόλο το φαινόμενο τθσ γλωςςικισ αλλαγισ προσ τθν αγγλικι γλϊςςα από τθ νεότερθ γενεά, το μζλλον τθσ ελλθνικισ ςτθ Νότια Αφρικι μπορεί να χαρακτθριςτεί από μια ςτακερι διγλωςςία, υπό τθν προχπόκεςθ ότι κα ςυνεχιςτοφν οι τρζχουςεσ τάςεισ. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (Linguistics)

Summaries in English and Greek / Keywords in English and Greek / This thesis explores the phenomenon of language shift and maintenance in the Greek community of Johannesburg, which is the largest Greek community in South Africa. The main aim of the study is to provide an account of the factors which assist in maintaining the Greek language which is under pressure from English, the dominant official language in the country. This study draws on the theoretical and methodological frameworks established in the many studies conducted on the Greek communities in the USA and Australia. The Greek community has played a significant role in assisting to shape the development of South Africa. Up until the 1980s, they were subject to discrimination from the host society; consequently, many immigrants lived together in certain suburbs and founded their own churches, clubs and schools. These factors contributed greatly to the retention of their language and culture. Since the late 1980s, the discriminatory attitude of the host society toward the immigrant communities has decreased notably, and subsequently, there has been an increased integration and assimilation into the host society. The process of assimilation has resulted, inter alia, in an increased use of English, the dominant language of the host society, consequently the retention of the mother tongue has declined. A number of factors were identified as playing an important role in the maintenance of Greek: education, religion, family, language loyalty and socio-cultural activities; and, to a lesser extent, media and overseas visits. Education has played a key role in maintaining the language, in particular through the establishment of Greek day and afternoon schools. Despite a preference for bilingual church services, the Greek Orthodox Church continues to play a vital role in the maintenance of Greek. The family, loyalty towards the language and culture and a notable pride in being Greek, and participation in socio-cultural activities contribute significantly to the maintenance of the Greek language. Despite a marked shift towards English in the younger generation, the future of Greek in South Africa may be characterized by relatively stable bilingualism, provided that current trends continue. / Η παροφςα μελζτθ πραγματεφεται το φαινόμενο τθσ αλλαγισ και διατιρθςθσ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ ςτθν ελλθνικι κοινότθτα του Γιοχάνεςμπουργκ, θ οποία αποτελεί τθν μεγαλφτερθ κοινότθτα ςτο Γιοχάνεςμπουργκ. Ο κφριοσ ςκοπόσ τθσ διατριβισ, είναι να παρουςιάςει τουσ παράγοντεσ που ςυμβάλλουν ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ, θ οποία καταπιζηεται γλωςςικά από τθν Αγγλικι, τθν κυρίαρχθ και επίςθμθ γλϊςςα τθσ χϊρασ. Η μελζτθ αυτι αντλεί τουσ κεωρθτικοφσ και μεκοδολογικοφσ τθσ άξονεσ από τισ διάφορεσ μελζτεσ που ωσ αντικείμενό τουσ ζχουν τθν μελζτθ των ελλθνικϊν κοινοτιτων ςτισ Ηνωμζνεσ Πολιτείεσ και ςτθν Αυςτραλία. Η Ελλθνικι κοινότθτα ζχει παίξει ςθμαντικό υποβοθκθτικό ρόλο ςτθν πορεία τθσ εξζλιξθσ τθσ Νότιασ Αφρικισ. Μζχρι το 1980 ιταν αντικείμενο φυλετικισ διάκριςθσ από τθ χϊρα υποδοχισ με αποτζλεςμα πολλοί μετανάςτεσ να ηουν ομαδικά ςε ςυγκεκριμζνεσ περιοχζσ, ιδρφοντασ τισ δικζσ τουσ εκκλθςίεσ, ςυλλόγουσ και ςχολεία. Οι προαναφερόμενοι παράγοντεσ ςυνζβαλαν αιςκθτά ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ γλϊςςασ και του ελλθνικοφ πολιτιςμοφ. Από τα τζλθ του 1980, θ πολιτικι διακρίςεων λόγω φυλετικισ καταγωγισ από τθ χϊρα υποδοχισ προσ τισ μεταναςτευτικζσ ομάδεσ ζχει μειωκεί αιςκθτά ενϊ μετζπειτα παρατθρείται μια αυξθμζνθ ενςωμάτωςθ και αφομοίωςθ ςτθν χϊρα-οικοδεςπότθσ. Η διαδικαςία ενςωμάτωςθσ ςυντζλεςε, inter alia, ςτθν αφξθςθ τθσ χριςθσ τθσ αγγλικισ γλϊςςασ, τθν κυρίαρχθ γλϊςςα τθσ χϊρασ υποδοχισ με αποτζλεςμα να μειϊνεται θ διατιρθςθ τθσ μθτρικισ γλϊςςασ. Αναγνωρίςτθκε ζνασ αρικμόσ παραγόντων με ςθμαντικό ρόλο ωσ προσ τθ διατιρθςθ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ: θ παιδεία, θ κρθςκεία, θ οικογζνεια, θ αφοςίωςθ ςτθ γλϊςςα και οι κοινωνικό-πολιτιςμικζσ δραςτθριότθτεσ ενϊ ςε μικρότερο ποςοςτό, τα μαηικά μζςα και οι διεκνείσ επιςκζψεισ. Η εκπαίδευςθ ζχει παίξει ςθμαντικό ρόλο ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ γλϊςςασ ιδιαίτερα μζςω τθσ ίδρυςθσ ελλθνικϊν θμεριςιων και απογευματινϊν ςχολείων. Η Ελλθνικι Ορκόδοξθ Εκκλθςία ςυνεχίηει να παίηει ουςιϊδθ ρόλο ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ γλϊςςασ παρότι υπάρχει μια προτίμθςθ για τισ δίγλωςςεσ εκκλθςιαςτικζσ λειτουργίεσ. Η οικογζνεια, θ αφοςίωςθ ςτθν γλϊςςα και ςτον πολιτιςμό, θ εμφανισ υπερθφάνεια ωσ προσ τθν ελλθνικι ταυτότθτα και θ ςυμμετοχι ςε κοινωνικό-πολιτιςμικζσ δραςτθριότθτεσ επίςθσ ςυμβάλλουν αιςκθτά ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ. Παρόλο το φαινόμενο τθσ γλωςςικισ αλλαγισ προσ τθν αγγλικι γλϊςςα από τθ νεότερθ γενεά, το μζλλον τθσ ελλθνικισ ςτθ Νότια Αφρικι μπορεί να χαρακτθριςτεί από μια ςτακερι διγλωςςία, υπό τθν προχπόκεςθ ότι κα ςυνεχιςτοφν οι τρζχουςεσ τάςεισ. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (Linguistics)

This study investigates intergenerational language transmission amongst Hungarian immigrants, using in-depth interviews and participant observation as the main methods. The analysis examines the experiences of parents and their school-aged children in 61 families living in Sweden´s two main cities, Stockholm and Göteborg. The sample families were separated into four groups, based on two pre-contact factors, namely (1) the parents´ linguistic environment and (2) their social identity prior to migration. Three of the four groups turned out to be comparable in size and serve as the focus groups of the study. Group 1 comprises families in which one or both parents are former majority members from monolingual parts of Hungary. Group 2 comprises families in which one or both parents are former majority members from Hungary, but in contrast, these parents grew up in bilingual areas, being exposed to other languages in their childhood settings. Group 3 comprises families in which often both parents grew up as members of a vital ethnic minority in bilingual or multilingual settings in Transylvania (Romania). It was hypothesised that the parents´ childhood experiences would have an effect on their ways of raising children in a migrant situation, which, in turn, will affect children´s bilingualism as well as the group´s maintenance chances. The results of the statistical analysis confirm the hypothesis and show significant differences between the focus groups in a number of factors, e.g. marriage pattern, religious engagement, cultural orientation, children’s opportunities to meet other group members, and language awareness. Most importantly, the investigation revealed broad variation in language use norms among the sample families, especially for family and group internal communication. This, together with the poor demographic conditions of the group, seriously threatens group cohesion. The prospects for Hungarian language maintenance in Sweden are therefore seen as limited.

This study investigates how Levantine Arabic-speaking immigrant parents´ language ideologies, i.e how they think and feel regarding heritage language maintenance, and language policies influence heritage language maintenance or loss for their children. This overarching topic is explored by examining the following questions; (1) What do parents think about maintenance of heritage language for their children? and which concerns do they have? (2)How do they talk about and describe their children´s readiness or resistance to learn/maintain their heritage language? (3) What do parents believe their role is in maintaining heritage language? (4) In which way, according to parents, does maintenance of heritage language influence children´s construction of identity and sense of belonging? In order to answer these questions, I conducted five semi-structured interviews with five Levantine Arabic-speaking immigrant parents, from Palestine and Syria, residing in Sweden and analysed recurring themes using Braun´s and Clarke´s (2006: 87- 93) thematic analysis method. The study findings show that parents attached great significance to preserving their children's heritage language due to its close relationship with their cultural, religious, ethnic, and social backgrounds as well as strengthening their success opportunities in future. Furthermore, parents stated that their children did not resist maintenance of heritage language. Instead, results show that children were actively involved in discussions about heritage language maintenance and language practices. Parents confirmed that Arabic language is their children's heritage language. In relation to influence of heritage language maintenance on constructing children´s identity and sense of belonging, parents´ views varied between emphasizing its role in strengthening children´s sense of belonging to their Arabic background, allowing them a flexible ability to belong to two different cultures or communities, and that maintenance of heritage language is not the major influencer on constructing children identity. Participants discussed the methods they use to enhance Arabic language among their children, challenges they encounter, and potential solutions.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / A causa de la falta de acceso al español formal y al español escrito, es típico que después de dos generaciones de inmigrantes, los hispanos pierdan su competencia en español. La lectura voluntaria, cuando uno lee porque quiere, es utilizada como método de impedir la pérdida del español como lengua de herencia. El propósito de este estudio es investigar cómo la lectura voluntaria facilita la adquisición y el mantenimiento del español como lengua materna.

Heritage languages are increasingly seen as a source of important insight in linguistics. Latvian has a long and under-researched history as a heritage language, with a heterogenous community of heritage speakers from two waves of migration in many countries including Sweden. A qualitative case study of a small written corpus identifies and analyses the key divergences in heritage Latvian in texts by nine preadolescent children that attend the complementary Latvian community school in Stockholm. Self-reported background information on language practices by study participants and their parents is used to estimate and compare their heritage language exposure level. This composite measure helps to evaluate the vulnerability of various areas of grammar to reduced language input. The observed language changes are analysed in the context of a recent study on Latvian language change in second-generation post-war immigrants to Sweden, earlier findings of contact-induced change in heritage Latvian in the USA as well as common features identified in other heritage languages. Changes attested in texts by several study participants and in previous studies are likely to point to common features of heritage Latvian. Recognition of their language as a heritage variety of Latvian can facilitate language maintenance efforts in the language community. / Arvsspråken ses alltmer som en källa till viktiga insikter inom språkvetenskap. Lettiskan har en lång och underutforskad historia som arvsspråk, med en heterogen gemenskap av kulturarvstalare från två migrationsvågor i många länder, inklusive Sverige. En kvalitativ fallstudie av en liten skriftlig korpus identifierar och analyserar de viktigaste avvikelserna i lettiska som arvsspråk i texter av nio barn i förpubertal ålder vilka alla går i den lettiska lördagsskolan i Stockholm. Självrapporterad bakgrundsinformation om språkbruk av studiedeltagarna och deras föräldrar används för att uppskatta och jämföra deras kontaktnivå med arvsspråket. Denna sammansatta indikator används för att utvärdera hur stor påverkan den minskade kontakten med språket har på olika grammatiska funktioner. De observerade språkförändringarna analyseras mot bakgrund av en nyligen genomförd studie om språkförändringar i lettiskan hos andra generationens efterkrigsinvandrare i Sverige, med en tidigare studie i USA om kontaktinducerade arvsspråksförändringar samt med gemensamma drag som identifierats i andra arvsspråk. Förändringar som observerats i flera av studiedeltagarnas texter och i tidigare studier pekar sannolikt på gemensamma drag i det lettiska arvsspråket. Om arvsspråket erkänns som en variant av lettiskan skulle det underlätta möjligheterna att underhålla språket i diasporans gemenskaper. / Etniskā mantojuma valodām lingvistikā tiek pievērsta arvien lielāka uzmanība. Latviešu valodai kā mantojuma valodai ir gara un maz pētīta vēsture. Saistībā ar vairākiem migrācijas viļņiem latviešu valoda ir mantojuma valoda daudzās pasaules valstīs, tai skaitā arī Zviedrijā. Šis pētījums veikts ar kvalitatīvu gadījuma analīzes metodi, izmantojot maza apjoma rakstveida teksta korpusu. Deviņu Stokholmas latviešu papildskolas audzēkņu rakstu darbos konstatētas un tālāk analizētas tipiskākās izmaiņas mantojuma latviešu valodā. Pētījuma dalībnieku un to vecāku sniegtās ziņas par valodu lietojumu izmantotas, lai novērtētu un salīdzinātu katra dalībnieka mantojuma valodas saskarsmes līmeni. Šis saliktais rādītājs palīdz novērtēt, cik lielu ietekmi uz dažādiem latviešu gramatikas moduļiem atstāj samazināta saskarsme ar latviešu valodu. Novērotās valodas izmaiņas tiek salīdzinātas ar rezultātiem nesenā pētījumā, kas analizē latviešu valodas izmaiņas otrās paaudzes pēckara imigrācijā Zviedrijā, kā arī ar senāku ASV latviešu valodas pētījumu un vispārējām etniskā mantojuma valodai raksturīgām pazīmēm. Izmaiņas, kas novērotas vairāku pētījuma dalībnieku darbos un iepriekšējos pētījumos, iespējams, norāda uz kopīgām iezīmēm, kas raksturīgas latviešu valodai kā mantojuma valodai. Izpratne par etniskā mantojuma valodu kā vienu no latviešu valodas paveidiem var palīdzēt uzturēt latviešu valodu diasporas valodas kopienās.