The ultimate aim of this research is to design a Catalan>English bilingual electronic dictionary of somatic idioms. To do so, we undertake a semasiological characterisation of somatic idioms to determine their semantic value and morphosyntactic combinatorial possibilities going from language to abstraction, identifying the differences in conceptualisation between Catalan and English and their equivalence relationship on the basis of their occurrences in corpora. The methodology used for the description of these somatisms is based on lexicogrammar but in a bottom-up manner. The theory of lexicogrammar (M. Gross 1975, 1981) holds that every elementary phrase is constituted by at least one first order predicate that introduces its arguments, represented by nouns or phrases. For example, in the phrase 'Luc admire le courage de Léa', we can find the verbal predicate 'admirer' with its arguments 'Luc' and 'Léa', that are morphologically equivalent to 'Luc est admiratif (pour + devant) le courage de Léa', with an adjective predicate, and 'Luc a de l'admiration pour le courage de Léa', with a nominal predicate, since there is no change in the structure of arguments (Le Pesant & Mathieu-Colas 1998: 8). This entails a systematic description of the syntactic and semantic properties of verbs, predicate nouns and adjectives in the form of tables that represent a class of lexical elements –characterised in terms of syntactic-semantic features (such as human, animal, plant, concrete, abstract, locative and temporal)–which correspond to a certain syntactic category with a series of common distributional and transformational properties. However, this description is insufficient for the complete automatic treatment of language; this is why in 1992 G. Gross adds to lexicogrammar the notion of object classes: semantic groups defined by the syntactic relations they maintain with one or more classes of verbs, called appropriate predicates (Gross 2012: 101). This exhaustive description of the language has made it possible to consider certain linguistic phenomena like fixation for the automatic treatment of language. Considering that computerised corpora play a very prominent role in usage-based linguistics, a trend that considers grammar and use to be closely interrelated, lexicogrammar can represent a theoretical model particularly suitable for the detection and analysis of phraseological units (PhUs) in corpora. In particular, we focus on the description of the 50 most frequent idioms in Catalan containing one of the five most common anthropomorphic somatic lexemes in all languages: hand, head, heart, eye and ear (Mellado 2004). To identify which are these 50 most frequent idioms (10 per each lexeme), we retrieve all the occurrences for each of the five mentioned lexemes from the Corpus Textual Informatitzat de la Llengua Catalana (CTILC) (~ 52M words with texts from 1833-1988). Then we carry out a semi-automatic extraction of the different combinations of the most frequent bigrams (candidates for idioms of the dictionary) for each somatic lexeme using the software Metaconcor. For example, for mà (hand), we obtain: a mà (at hand), a mà (by hand), entre mans (on [one’s] hands), de mà en mà (from hand to hand), mà d’obra (labour force), mà dura (firm hand), picar de mans (to clap [one’s hands]), lligar de peus i mans (to tie [sb’s] hands and feet), a mans plenes (liberally) and rentar-se’n les mans (to wash [one’s] hands [of]). We also consider the most frequent verbal and nominal co-occurrences of each bigram. Once we have translated the Catalan idioms into English, we apply this step to the English equivalents based on their occurrences in the British National Corpus (BNC) (~ 100M words with texts from 1985-1994). In order to design the dictionary, we undertake a syntactic-semantic description of the Catalan idioms and their equivalents in English –indicating its argument structures and semantic values according to the object class to which we ascribe them (the one referring to the values of <somatisms>)–, based on the occurrences of these units offered by the CTILC for Catalan and the BNC for English. This analysis is expressed through a tagging recognised by automatic language processing systems, based on the one used by the Laboratoire de Linguistique Informatique (LLI) –current LDI (Lexiques, Dictionnaires, Informatique) from the Paris 13 University–, whose dictionaries follow the system of the Laboratoire d’Automatique Documentaire et Linguistique (LADL) (Paris 7) –founded by M. Gross in 1968– and incorporate the notion of G. Gross’ object classes (1992). Having identified the most frequent idioms and their English equivalents, as well as their distributional (syntagmatic relations) and transformational possibilities (paradigmatic relations), we give account of their semantic relations (for both languages): conceptual variations (polysemy), intersynonymic variants (relations of synonymy), their eventual relations of antonymy and hyperonymy and their paradigmatic variants (according to their occurrences in the corpora used). All this information is registered in the dictionary in the form of four coordinated files with fields of different nature (cf. 2): two files containing the arguments of the idioms (one file for Catalan and another file for English) and two files containing the predicates (i.e. the idioms as entries) (one file for Catalan and another one for English). Considering the relevance object classes may have in fixed expressions, our dictionary mostly contains idioms –predicates– that combine invariable (argument human nouns) and variable (anthropomorphic somatic lexemes) elements –arguments–: for example, to wash <one’s> hands (of)/C:<so-ma:elre>/G:v/N0:<hum>/N1:<so-ma:elre>/N3:<ina>/Ca:rentar-se les mans (d’) <alguna cosa>, where N0 refers to the subject (a human), and N1 to the first complement (direct object) in the argument structure of this idiom with the somatic lexeme (so) hand, which in this case has a semantic value of refusal of responsibility (elre) (in other cases this lexeme will be in idioms which may evoke, among others, proximity or facility [at hand], manual labour [by hand], activity [on (one’s) hands], severity [firm hand], itinerancy [from hand to hand], human resources [labour force], approval, enthusiasm or attention [to clap (one’s hands)], immobility or repression [to tie (sb’s) hands and feet] and abundance [liberally], which will be reflected in the argument file). N3 is the third complement, which here corresponds to a concrete inanimate object (<ina>)(e.g. “I’m entirely opposed to the er (pause) the idea that they should wash their hands of their (pause) er, obligations er, the nineteen sixty eight act (pause) as” [BNC]). In this case there is no N2 complement, which usually refers to an indirect object. Ca indicates the Catalan equivalent of the idiom. Opting for an electronic phraseological dictionary with a semasiological approach implies, on the one hand, finding the PhUs contained in it more easily, since instead of departing from specific concepts, it departs from the semantic values of the units (idioms) grouped in a linguistically well-defined object class. On the other, it offers the advantage of being suitable for Natural Language Processing, as it has a coding recognised by automatic language processing systems, incorporating numerous fields with information of morphological, syntactic-semantic (the most common distributional and transformational properties) and diasystematic nature (if applicable). It also contains a specific field referred to translations into other languages (bilingual or multilingual). Therefore, these repertoires have a dual function: decoding and encoding information. In fact, one of the main advantages offered by semasiological electronic dictionaries over more traditional ones is that they present in different entries each of the argument structures of a predicate, which allows it to be monosemised. Thus, each usage of a predicate is conceived as a lexical unit to which a description is assigned, a sine qua non for machine translation. This is particularly relevant to hybrid systems, which combine statistics with syntax and semantics (e.g. Systran and Sadaw). The eventual product derived from this thesis, as well as the linguistic data (methodology, examples, tagging and files), can be considered unprecedented. Until now, lexicogrammar had been implemented based on linguistic intuition, which could make the creation of object classes somehow biased by the linguist’s idiolect. Using a syntactic-semantic tagging based on the above-mentioned methodology enables precision and objectivity, starting from real language instances (occurrences of these idioms in corpora). All in all, the usability and replicability of the linguistic data provided in the research may offer a wide range of possibilities, since this tagging could be implemented into linguistic analysis tools (e.g. in the form of tags in the “part of speech” label if idioms are used) and the model could be replicated to expressions from other lexico-phraseological fields, different types of PhUs and other languages. / La present tesi doctoral ha rebut el finançament del contracte d’investigació predoctoral Ayudas para la Formación de Profesorado Universitario (Ref. FPU17/0032) concedit pel Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte d’Espanya (actual Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades). El projecte de tesi s’ha inscrit en el si de l’Institut Superior d’Investigació Cooperativa IVITRA [ISIC-IVITRA] (Programa per a la Constitució i Acreditació d’Instituts Superiors d’Investigació Cooperativa d’Excel∙lència de la Generalitat Valenciana, Ref. ISIC/012/042) i s’ha desenvolupat en el marc dels projectes, xarxes i grups de recerca següents: «Variación y cambio lingüístico en catalán. Una aproximación diacrónica según la Lingüística de Corpus» (MICINUN, Ref. PGC2018-099399-B-100371); (IEC, Ref. PRO2018-S04-MARTINES); Grup d’Investigació VIGROB-125 de la UA; Xarxa de recerca en innovació en docència universitària «Lingüística de Corpus i Mediterrània intercultural: investigació educativa per a l’aplicació de la Lingüística de Corpus en entorns multilingües diacrònics. Aplicacions del Metacorpus CIMTAC» (Institut de Ciències de l’Educació de la UA, Ref. 4581-2018), i Grup d’Investigació en Tecnologia Educativa en Història de la Cultura, Diacronia lingüística i Traducció (Universitat d’Alacant, Ref. GITE-09009-UA).

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / In the LGBT community there are some dogmas which must be followed so that the homosexual is seen with good eyes by their peers: having a sexually attractive body, having an intense sexual life and always staying young. These fundamentals create a false impression that every gay is young, beautiful and attractive. However, it is known that the homosexual community is not formed only by young men. There are several groups of homosexuals which are not very esteemed by the gay community, such as transsexuals, transvestites, bears, and the elderly gays. From this information and taking into account the fact that one of the roles that language performs is to allow representations of the world and of ourselves to be manifested, this work aims to analyze through lexicogrammar functions and semantic elements: i) how elderly homosexuals are linguistically represented, ii) what are the social representations manifested about the group, and iii) what are the agents responsible for these representations. Therefore, the corpus is composed of 19 journalistic texts (2 opinion pieces, 7 newspaper reports and 10 news pieces) available over the Internet and that address the homosexuality in seniors. In order to identify what representations are manifested on elderly gays in the texts from the corpus, as well as to verify what lexicogrammar functions perform these representations, the analytical tool at the base of the analysis is the transitivity system from Systemic Functional Grammar (HALLIDAY & MATTHIESSEN, 2004). To analyze what agents are responsible for the representations found, we used the engagement system from the Appraisal Theory (MARTIN & WHITE, 2005). The results show that in the texts analyzed there are seven representations of elderly gays: lonely, victims of prejudice, politically helpless, active, invisible, marginalized, and victims of crimes. Furthermore, we concluded that the representing agents are both the sources which act on the texts and the media legal representative, the journalist or the writer. / Na comunidade LGBT, há certos preceitos que devem ser seguidos para que o homossexual seja visto com bons olhos pelos seus pares: ter um corpo sexualmente atraente, possuir uma vida sexual intensa e manter-se jovem. Esses códigos de conduta criam a falsa impressão de que todo gay é jovem, belo e atraente. Entretanto, é sabido que a comunidade homossexual não é formada apenas por joviais rapazes; há vários grupos de homossexuais ainda pouco prestigiados pela comunidade gay, como as transex, as travestis, os bears e os gays idosos. Partindo disso e considerando que uma das funções desempenhadas pela linguagem é possibilitar que representações acerca do mundo, de nós mesmos e dos outros sejam manifestadas, este trabalho visa a analisar, com base em funções léxico-gramaticais e elementos semânticos-discursivos, i) como homossexuais idosos são representados linguisticamente, ii) quais são as representações sociais manifestadas a respeito do grupo e iii) quais são os agentes responsáveis pelas representações encontradas. Para isso, o corpus é composto por 19 textos jornalísticos (2 artigos de opinião, 7 reportagens e 10 notícias), disponíveis na internet, que abordam a questão da homossexualidade na terceira idade. A fim de identificar quais representações manifestadas sobre os gays idosos nos textos do corpus, bem como verificar quais funções léxico-gramaticais realizam essas representações, a ferramenta teórica que embasa as análises é o sistema de transitividade, da Gramática Sistêmico-Funcional (HALLIDAY & MATTHIESSEN, 2004). Para analisar quais os agentes responsáveis pelas representações encontradas, empregamos o sistema de engajamento, da Teoria da Avaliatividade (MARTIN & WHITE, 2005). Os resultados encontrados mostram que, nos textos analisados, existem sete representações sobre os gays idosos: solitários, vítimas de preconceito, desamparados politicamente, atuantes, invisíveis, marginalizados e vítimas de crime. Além disso, chegou-se à conclusão de que os agentes representadores são tanto as fontes que atuam nos textos quanto o representante legal da mídia, jornalista ou articulista.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This work tries to answer the following question: how law operators represent social actors in the penal process in a crime against life in the Brazilian context? The main objective consists of analyzing the forms of representation of social actors, based on the description of the transitivity system, in texts produced by the operators in a penal process. To do that, it was necessary to gather contextual data about the legal practice. Through the research on a documental source, constituted by laws and informative texts in the Legal Law area, we have identified mechanisms of institutionalization and we have built the context of culture. We have also built the context of situation in which a particular penal process (PP) is inserted, selected in the 1st Vara Criminal of the Santa Maria Forum, RS, Brazil. Through a qualitative method, we have identified the social actors who fill in the roles of transitivity on the clause level, based on the Systemic Functional Grammar developed by Halliday & Matthiessen (1999, 2004), and we have analyzed the forms of representation, based on the socio-semantic categories proposed by van Leeuwen (1997). The analysis of lexical-grammatical choices associated with contextual data showed the penal process documents constitute a complex system of genres in which the law operators administrate , according to their activities and purposes, the representations of reality construed by the defendant and witnesses. This way, the Law operators use the language to elaborate versions of reality one of which is chosen by the jury. / Este trabalho busca responder à seguinte questão: como operadores do direito fazem a representação de atores sociais nos autos de um processo penal de um crime contra a vida no contexto brasileiro? O objetivo central consiste em analisar as formas de representação dos atores sociais, a partir da descrição do sistema de transitividade, em textos produzidos pelos operadores nos autos de um processo penal. Para isso, fez-se necessário o levantamento de dados contextuais sobre a prática jurídica penal. Por meio da consulta a uma fonte documental, constituída de leis e textos informativos da área de Direito Penal, identificamos mecanismos de institucionalização e delineamos o contexto de cultura. Delineamos também o contexto de situação em que se inserem os autos de um processo penal em particular (PP), selecionado junto à 1ª Vara Criminal do Fórum de Santa Maria, RS, Brasil. Por meio do método qualitativo, identificamos os atores sociais que preenchem os papéis da transitividade no nível da oração, com base na Gramática Sistêmico-Funcional desenvolvida por Halliday & Matthiessen (1999, 2004), e analisamos as formas de representação, com base nas categorias sócio-semânticas propostas por van Leeuwen (1997). A análise das escolhas léxico-gramaticais associadas aos dados contextuais mostrou que os autos do processo penal constituem um complexo sistema de gêneros, em que os operadores do direito administram , em vista de suas atividades e dos seus propósitos, as representações da realidade construídas pela ré e pelas testemunhas. Dessa forma, os operadores do direito usam a linguagem para elaborar versões da realidade, uma das quais é escolhida pelos jurados.

I den här studien presenteras en läromedelsanalys utifrån konkreta och abstrakta språkdrag. Studiens syfte är att undersöka språkets svårighetsnivå i två läromedel, utifrån att besvara hur uppgifter i olika delar av läromedlen förhåller sig till abstrakta och konkreta språkdrag samt hur språkdragen utvecklas från början till slutet. För att besvara forskningsfrågorna används uppgifter från materialen Klara Svenskan och Språkskrinet med ett urval av 20 uppgifter i början, mitten och slutet av böckerna. Lexikogrammatikens abstrakta-konkreta dimension används som metod för att urskilja språkdragen konkret och abstrakt i uppgifterna vid analysen och studien utgår ifrån Legitimation Code Theory som belyser svårighetsnivån utifrån gravitation och densitet som indikerar på abstrakta och konkreta språkdrag. I resultatet presenteras förekomsten av abstrakta och konkreta språkdrag utifrån andel per 100 ord för varje del av läromedlen samt utvecklingen av språkets svårighetsnivå från början, mitten och sluten av läromedlen. Början av läromedlen indikerar på hög andel konkreta språkdrag därefter minskar andelen konkreta språkdrag i mitten och slutet av läromedlen. I samband med konkretionens minskning visar resultatet att abstraktionen ökar, vilket kopplas till att språkutveckling förflyttas från det konkreta språket mot det abstrakta språket. I diskussionen beskrivs behovet av ytterligare forskning inom läromedel och abstrakta och konkreta språkdrag, för att stödja lärare i att uppmärksamma de svårigheter elever kan ha med att förstå uppgiftsbeskrivningar i läromedel.