The regulation of the serum triglyceride responses to fat ingestion have been examined in normolipidemic men. To evaluate the existing methods for comparing chylomicron-triglyceride clearance, the oral and intravenous fat tolerance tests and a steady state duodenal perfusion method were compared. Good correlations (r > 0.8) were found between each of these methods. Since the intravenous fat tolerance test is independent of fat absorption, these data suggested that the serum triglyceride response to fat feeding was largely determined by the rate of chylomicron-triglyceride clearance. To determine the influence of the quantity and type of meal fat on postprandial serum triglyceride concentrations, the serum triglyceride responses to three different doses of dairy cream, and to standard doses of olive and sunflower oil were examined. For a given type of fat, the magnitude of postprandial lipemia (the integrated serum triglyceride excursion) varied directly with the quantity of fat in the meal. This finding suggested that the chylomicron- triglyceride clearance system(s) did not become saturated even after large fat meals. In addition, it appeared that the hormonal factors released in response to fat ingestion (some of which are known to increase lipoprotein lipase activity in vitro) did not increase the rate of chylomicron-triglyceride clearance. If the quantity of fat in a meal was fixed, then postprandial lipemia increased with increasing saturation of the triglyceride fatty acids. These differences did not appear to reflect differences in triglyceride absorption. Since acute fat feeding per se did not appear to stimulate chylomicron-triglyceride clearance, the effects of dietary proteins and carbohydrates were studied. The addition of up to 35g protein to a standard test meal did not affect postprandial lipemia. These results were supported by the observation that protein ingestion did not affect intravenous fat tolerance. Postprandial serum triglyceride concentrations were significantly influenced by carbohydrate ingestion. Fructose (50g) and sucrose (100g) markedly increased postprandial lipemia, although glucose ingestion did not. In agreement with earlier studies, glucose ingestion decreased serum triglyceride concentrations 2 hours after the meal. This effect was abolished by intraduodenal fat administration and by substituting starch for glucose in the test meal. The effects of glucose could be reproduced by iso-osmotic quantities of urea, however. These findings suggested that glucose ingestion did not increase chylomicron -triglyceride clearance. It is more likely that glucose delayed the absorption of triglycerides by slowing gastric emptying, and that this effect was partly related to the increased osmolarity of glucose- containing meals. The effects of chronic exercise on postprandial lipemia and chylomicron-triglyceride clearance were determined in endurance- adapted athletes. The serum triglyceride responses to large and small fat meals were lower in athletes than in sedentary men with comparable fasting triglyceride concentrations. These differences were not eliminated by a single bout of acute exercise in the sedentary men. The clearance of intravenously administered lntralipid, and chylomicron -triglyceride clearance assessed from steady state chylomicron-triglyceride concentrations during duodenal fat perfusion were faster in athletes than in the sedentary men. These data suggested that the low postprandial lipemia in athletes reflects increased chylomicron-triglyceride clearance caused by increased activity of the triglyceride clearing system(s). Given these considerations. it appears that the pathway(s) for chylomicron triglyceride clearance are extremely efficient in normal men and that these pathways are not subject to acute physiological regulation.

No description available.

La sécrétion de lipase, la lipolyse extracellulaire et l’absorption des acides gras (AGL) ont été étudiés chez Yarrowia lipolytica (YL) en présence d’huile d’olive et/ou de sucrose. Des mesures d’activité lipase et d’immuno-révélation ont montré que l’activité lipase présente dans le milieu de culture provenait principalement de la lipase YLLIP2. L’huile d’olive induit la production de lipase qui est principalement associée aux cellules pendant les premières heures de cultures. YLLIP2 est ensuite libérée dans le milieu de culture avant d’être totalement dégradée par les protéases. Les triglycérides (TG) sont dégradés alors que la lipase est encore attachée aux cellules. Les produits de lipolyse présents dans le milieu de culture et à l’intérieur des cellules ont été quantifiés par chromatographie TLC-FID et GC. Les niveaux intracellulaires d’AGL et de TG augmentent transitoirement et dépendent de la source de carbone utilisée. Une accumulation maximum de 37,8 % w/w de lipides est observée avec l’huile d’olive seule. Cette étude montre que la levure YL est un modèle intéressant pour étudier la lipolyse extracellulaire et l’absorption des acides gras par les cellules / Lipase secretion, extracellular lipolysis and fatty acid (FFA) uptake were quantified in Yarrowia lipolytica (YL) grown in the presence of olive oil and/or sucrose. Lipase assays and western blot analysis indicated that the lipase activity measured in YL cultures mainly resulted from YLLIP2 lipase. Lipase production was triggered by olive oil and YLLIP2 remained associated with the yeast cells during the first hours of culture. It was then released in the culture medium before it was totally degraded by the alkaline protease. Olive oil triglycerides (TG) were degraded when the lipase was still attached to the cell wall. The fate of lipolysis products in the culture medium and inside the yeast cell were investigated by quantitative TLC-FID and GC analysis. Intracellular levels of FFA and TG increased transiently and were dependent on the carbon sources. A maximum fat storage of 37.8% w/w was observed with olive oil alone. The present study shows that yeasts are interesting models for studying extracellular lipolysis and fat uptake by the cell

L’hypertriglycéridémie (hyperTG) est une dyslipidémie fréquente, caractérisée par une augmentation de la concentration plasmatique en triglycérides (TG). L’hyperTG est considérée comme un facteur de risque indépendant de la maladie cardiovasculaire, particulièrement de la maladie coronarienne athérosclérotique. Plusieurs facteurs environnementaux et génétiques ont été associés avec l’hyperTG. Cependant, près de 90% des cas d’hyperTG primaire sont encore incomplètement caractérisés au niveau moléculaire. Dernièrement, la protéine GPIHBP1 (glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored high-density lipoprotein-binding protein 1), qui a un rôle clef dans le métabolisme des TG, a été associée à l’expression d’hyperTG sévère et rare chez l’humain. Ce mémoire présente les résultats de nos travaux qui ont été effectués afin d’identifier de nouvelles bases moléculaires associées à l’expression de l’hyperTG dans le locus du gène GPIHBP1. Nous avons observé que le polymorphisme GPIHBP1 g.-469G>A (rs72691625), dont la fréquence de l’allèle mineure a été évaluée à 19,6% dans notre échantillon, serait associé à l’expression d’hyperTG (TG ≥ 2mmol/L) dans une population canadienne-française. Ce polymorphisme est associé à un risque 1,67 fois plus grand d’exprimer une triglycéridémie ≥ 2mmol/L chez les porteurs hétérozygotes et 5,7 fois plus grand chez les porteurs homozygotes, comparativement aux non-porteurs. Ce risque d’hyperTG serait exacerbé par la présence concomitante d’une mutation hypertriglycéridémiante dans le gène codant pour la lipoprotéine lipase. La présence de ce polymorphisme serait particulièrement associée à l’expression de la dysbêtalipoprotéinémie familiale et de l’hypertriglycéridémie familiale endogène. GPIHBP1 g.-469G>A est le premier polymorphisme fréquent identifié dans le promoteur du gène à être associé avec l’expression d’hyperTG. GPIHBP1 émerge de plus en plus comme un gène candidat intéressant pour la recherche de nouvelles bases moléculaires pouvant expliquer certaines formes d’hyperTG primaire fréquente. / Hypertriglyceridemia (hyperTG) is a frequent dyslipidemia referring to an increased fasting plasma triglyceride (TG) level ≥ 2 mmol/L. HyperTG is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease, such as coronary artery diseases. Several environmental and genetic factors have been associated with hyperTG. Although several gene factors were associated with hyperTG, nearly 90% of cases of primary hyperTG are still incompletely characterized at the molecular level. Recently, few cases of rare and severe hyperTG have been associated with some rare polymorphisms in the gene coding for GPIHBP1 (glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored high-density lipoprotein-binding protein 1). This manuscript resumes our research regarding the identification of new molecular bases associated with the expression of frequent hyperTG subtypes in the gene locus GPIHBP1. Our results show that the GPIHBP1 g.-469G>A polymorphism (rs72691625), whose the minor allele frequency was estimated to 19.6% in our sample, was associated with the expression of hyperTG (TG ≥ 2 mmol/L) in a French-Canadian population. Subjects heterozygous and homozygous for this polymorphism respectively had a 1.67-fold and 5.70-fold increased risk to exhibit plasma TG levels ≥ 2mmol/L as compared to non-carriers. This increased risk of hyperTG observed in g.-469A carriers seems to be exacerbated by the concomitant presence of a frequent loss-of-function lipoprotein lipase gene variant. This polymorphism seems also particularly associated with dysbetalipoproteinemia and familial hypertriglyceridemia. The g.-469G>A polymorphism is the first common polymorphism in the GPIHBP1 gene promoter to be associated with the expression of hyperTG. GPIHBP1 emerges as a significant candidate for the molecular based of primary hyperTG.

La quercétine (QCT) est un composé polyphénolique d'origine végétale connu pour ses activités antioxydantes et ses effets bénéfiques sur la santé. Sa solubilité, sa stabilité, sa biodisponibilité et ses activités biologiques peuvent être améliorées par une acylation sélective de ses groupements hydroxylés. Ce travail vise à étudier la possibilité d'une acétylation enzymatique de la QCT par la lipase B de Candida antarctica (CALB), la lipase la plus exploitée industriellement pour des estérifications régio- et énantiosélectives. Dans une perspective d'ingénierie rationnelle de l'enzyme, une démarche de modélisation moléculaire est mise en oeuvre pour mieux comprendre les interactions qui régissent le positionnement et l'orientation du substrat dans le site actif de la lipase. Dans une première partie expérimentale, l'absence d'activité d'acétylation de la CALB envers la QCT, en présence d'un excès d'acétate de vinyle, a été confirmé. Dans une seconde partie, cette inactivité de la CALB a été expliquée à l'aide de simulations de docking et de dynamique moléculaire. Elle résulte d'une orientation inappropriée du donneur d'acyle liée à la sérine catalytique et d'une proximité insuffisante des hydroxyles de la QCT vis-à-vis des résidus catalytiques. L'éloignement de la QCT de la triade catalytique est due à la rigidité de la molécule, l'étroitesse du site actif ainsi qu'à des interactions hydrophobes et électrostatiques entre le substrat et les résidus de la cavité. En revanche, cette approche de simulation moléculaire prédit un bon positionnement des deux substrats dans le site actif de la lipase de Pseudomonas cepacia (PCL), laquelle est capable d'acétyler la QCT. Dans une troisième partie, l'influence de mutations de deux résidus impliqués dans les liaisons de stabilisation hydrophobe de la QCT dans la CALB a été investiguée par simulation. La substitution d'isoleucines par des valines et des alanines conduit à une augmentation du volume de la poche catalytique et une mobilité accrue de la QCT. Mais ces mutations sont insuffisantes pour permettre un positionnement adéquat de l'acétate et de la QCT par rapport à la triade catalytique. La dernière partie focalise sur les interactions électrostatiques entre la QCT et le site actif de CALB. Les orientations du substrat dans la cavité suite à une méthylation ou une acétylation des groupements hydroxyles de la QCT sont précisées / Quercetin (QCT) is a plant-produced polyphenolic compound well-known for its antioxidant activities and beneficial health effects. Its solubility, stability, bioavailability and biological activities may be improved by a selective acylation of its hydroxyl groups. This work aims at studying the possibility of QCT enzymatic acetylation by Candida antarctica lipase B (CALB), the most industrially exploited lipase for regio- and enantioselective esterifications. In prospect of the rational enzyme design, a molecular modeling approach was implemented to understand the interactions that govern the substrate positioning and orientation in the lipase's active site. In a first experimental part, the absence of CALB acetylation activity towards quercetin in excess of vinyl acetate was confirmed. In a second part, this inactivity of CALB was explained by means of docking and molecular dynamics simulations. This results from an inappropriate positioning of the acyl donor linked to the catalytic serine and from an insufficient proximity of QCT hydroxyls vis-à-vis catalytic residues. The distance of QCT from the catalytic triad is due to its rigidity and to the narrow active site as well as to hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions between the substrate and the cavity residues. On the contrary, this molecular simulation approach predicts an appropriate positioning of both substrates in the active site of Pseudomonas cepacia lipase (PCL), which can perform QCT acetylation. In a third part, the impact of mutations of two residues implicated in the stabilization of QCT by hydrophobic interactions in CALB was investigated through simulations. The substitution of isoleucines by alanines and valines led to an increase in the catalytic pocket volume which intensified the mobility of QCT. However, these mutations are insufficient to allow an appropriate positioning of acetate and QCT in relation to the catalytic triad. The last part of this work focuses on the electrostatic interactions between QCT and CALB's active site. The substrate orientation in the cavity following methylation or acetylation of QCT's hydroxyl groups was clarified

La demande en composés chiraux est en plein essor ces dernières années. Pour accéder à leur synthèse, la biocatalyse, couplée à l’irradiation pourrait être une méthode innovante. Il existe en effet de nombreux cas dans la littérature où l’utilisation de micro-onde semble avoir un effet activateur sur l’efficacité enzymatique.Cependant, l’effet de l’irradiation micro-onde est mal compris et controversé. Le but de cette thèse était d’étudier l’impact de l’irradiation micro-onde sur des lipases, immobilisées ou non, en étudiant différentes réactions modèles, allant de la résolution d’alcools secondaires linéaires simples à la résolution de polyols complexes, et alcools polyfonctionalisés, par comparaison entre chauffage sous irradiation micro-onde (en conditions drastiques ou non) au chauffage classique. L’étude de l’irradiation micro-onde sur la stabilité enzymatique et sur paramètres intrinsèques de l’enzyme après modification des paramètres réactionnels a permis de mettre en évidence un rôle indéniable de l’irradiation micro-onde sur l’efficacité des réactions enzymatiques. Il a été possible d’une part de diminuer de façon importante les temps réactionnels, comparé au chauffage traditionnel,et d’autre part de contrôler efficacement l’énantio préférence et la sélectivité de la lipase pour l’obtention de molécules d’intérêt. Par des procédés innovants, l’impact de la puissance d’irradiation a été montré comme hautement dépendant du modèle réactionnel étudié. En optimisant les conditions réactionnelles pour obtenir les meilleures sélectivités et activités enzymatique sous irradiation micro-onde, la synthèse de a-hydroxyamides chiraux et de polyols parfaitement résolus a pu être entreprise de façon rapide, propre, tout en respectant les principes de chimie verte. / Chiral molecules demand is booming in recent years. Biocatalyse under microwave irradiation is found to be an attractive way to synthesise these molecules. Indeed, in the literature, some cases show an activation effect on the enzymatic efficiency by microwave irradiation, compared to classical heating. However, the effect of microwave irradiation is not well understood and controversial. The aim of his PhD was to study the impact of the microwave irradiation on some lipases, immobilized or not. Different model reactions were studied from secondary linear alcohol resolution, to the resolution of more complex polyols or polyfunctionalized secondary alcohols comparing the microwave heating (in drastic conditions or not) to the classical heating. Studying the enzymatic stability and intrinsic parameters after modifying the reaction parameters, we observed a clearly microwave effect on the efficiency of the enzymatic resolutions. Using microwave heating, it could be possible to decrease, in an important way, the reaction time, compared to the classical heating and to control the énantiopréférence of the lipase to efficiently obtain chiral product. Trough innovative processes, the impact of the irradiation has been studied and it depends on the model reaction.Optimizing the conditions to obtain the best enzyme selectivities and activities under microwave irradiation, we could synthesise chiral a-hydroxyamides and polyols, in a rapid, clean way, respecting the principles of green chemistry.

Parmi les activités catalytiques les plus intéressantes présentes dans le latex de Carica papaya on trouve l'activité lipolytique (EC 3.1.1.X). En effet les enzymes lipolytiques peuvent catalyser des réactions d’hydrolyse sur divers substrats mais également, dans des conditions thermodynamiques favorables, des réactions de synthèse. De plus, elles sont actives en présence de solvants organiques, ce qui fait de ce type d’enzymes des biocatalyseurs spécialement attractifs pour des applications industrielles. Enfin, cette activité lipolytique est associée à la matrice insoluble du latex, et constitue donc une activité immobilisée. Cependant et pour cette même raison, il n'a pas été possible jusqu'à présent d'élucider la ou les séquences protéiques dans le latex responsables de cette activité lipolytique. En conséquence, cette thèse est dédiée à l'étude de l'activité lipolytique du latex de C. papaya. Pour cela, la purification partielle du latex de C. papaya a été réalisée. Ainsi, les propriétés catalytiques des fractions partiellement purifiées ont pu être déterminées pour l'hydrolyse de triglycérides, la résolution de mélanges racémique d'octyl ester de l'acide 2-bromo-phenylacétique, la synthèse de biopolymères et des lipides structurés. Parallèlement à cela, une recherche dans le génome de C. papaya des séquences codant les motifs conservés dans les protéines lipolytiques, ainsi que des essais d'expression in vivo dans les feuilles de la plante en conditions de stress a été effectuée, ce qui a permis d’isoler pour la première fois une lipase, CpLip2, exprimée in vivo chez C. papaya. Cette protéine, ainsi que 2 autres protéines déjà identifiées dans le latex de C. papaya, CpEst et CpLip1, ont été produites sous forme fonctionnelle en employant respectivement Nicothiana sp., Yarrowia lipolytica et Pichia pastoris comme systèmes d'expression. Finalement, certaines des propriétés biochimiques et catalytiques de ces protéines recombinantes ont pu être déterminées / Lipolytic activity (EC 3.1.1.X) is one of the most interesting catalytic activities from Carica papaya latex. Indeed lipolytic enzymes can catalyze not only hydrolysis but also various synthesis reactions due to their activity in organic solvents, which make them especially attractive for industrial applications. Nevertheless, most of the lipolytic activity present in latex is tightly associated to the insoluble fraction of the latex and up to now it has not been possible to determine which enzymes are responsible for the lipolytic activity of C. papaya latex. This PhD work is dedicated to the study of the lipolytic activity present in Carica papaya. Partial purification of lipolytic activity from C. papaya latex was carried out to evaluate the catalytic properties of the partially purified fractions in the hydrolysis of triglycerides, the resolution of racemic mixtures of 2-bromo-phenylacetic octyl ester, biopolymers and structured lipids synthesis. Bioinformatic analysis was also realized on C. papaya genome by searching conserved motifs for lipolytic proteins. Finally, assays of in vivo transcriptomic in the leaves of stressed C. papaya allowed the isolation of a new lipase produced in vivo (CpLip2, gene 1973.2). This protein, as well as two previously identified lipolytic enzymes from C. papaya, CpEst (gen 25.180) and CpLip1 (gen 55.143) were functionally expressed using Nicotiana sp.,Yarrowia lipolytica and Pichia pastoris as expression hosts, respectively. Finally, some of the biochemical and catalytic properties of these produced recombinant proteins were evaluated / Una de las actividades catalíticas más interesantes presentes en el látex de Carica papaya es la actividad lipolítica (3.1.1.X).Las enzimas lipolíticas pueden catalizar reacciones de hidrólisis sobre varios sustratos e igualmente, en condiciones termodinámicas favorables, pueden catalizar reacciones de síntesis. Adicionalmente, son activas en presencia de solventes orgánicos, por lo que son biocatalizadores atractivos para aplicaciones industriales. Sin embargo, la mayor parte de la actividad lipolítica del látex se encuentra asociada a la matriz insoluble del látex, formando un biocatalizador auto-inmovilizado.Por esta razón, hasta la fecha no ha sido posible elucidar qué enzima o enzimas son responsables de la actividad lipolítica observada en el látex de C. papaya. En consecuencia, la presente investigación está dedicada al estudio de la actividad lipolítica en Carica papaya. Para ello, se realizaron estudios de purificación parcial del látex de Carica papaya, así como la evaluación de las propiedades catalíticas de las fracciones parcialmente purificadas en la hidrólisis de triglicéridos, resolución de mezclas racémicas de octil éster del ácido 2-bromo-fenilacético y síntesis de biopolímeros y lípidos estructurados. Paralelamente, se realizó un análisis genómico mediante la búsqueda con motivos conservados que codifican para diversas proteínas lipolíticas, así como ensayos de transcriptómica para buscar la expresión in vivo de secuencias seleccionadas en las hojas de la planta, que permitieron encontrar por primera vez una expresión in vivo de una lipasa en C. papaya (CpLip2). Esta proteína y otras dos previamente identificadas en el látex de papaya (CpEst y CpLip1), fueron expresadas de forma funcional empleando respectivamente Nicotiana sp., Yarrowia lipolytica y Pichia pastoris como sistemas de expresión. Finalmente algunas de las propiedades bioquímicas y catalíticas de las proteínas expresadas fueron determinadas

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo verificar a potencialidade do óleo de macaúba como matéria-prima para síntese de biodiesel pela rota enzimática. Utilizou-se como proposta a transesterificação do óleo de macaúba com etanol mediada pela enzima lipase em fluxo contínuo empregando reator de leito fixo, visando obter amostras de biodiesel com propriedades adequadas à sua utilização como biocombustível. A enzima selecionada para desenvolvimento experimental foi a lipase microbiana de Burkholderia cepacia imobilizada em suporte híbrido não comercial (SiO2-PVA). Foram testados reatores de leito fixo de um estágio e dois estágios. A primeira etapa do trabalho foi direcionada para testes visando avaliar a influência da razão entre a altura (l) e o diâmetro (d) do reator de leito fixo na etanólise do óleo de macaúba. As reações foram operadas continuamente por 20 dias, utilizando óleo: etanol numa razão molar de 1:12 na ausência de solvente e tempo espacial de 14h. Dois reatores foram testados: Reator A (l = 55 mm e d = 15 mm) e Reator B (l = 210 mm e d = 14 mm), apresentando relação geométrica (l/d) de 3,7 e 15, respectivamente. Os dados obtidos indicaram influência das dimensões da coluna empacotada na produção de biodiesel e nas condições testadas, a maior razão altura/ diâmetro não interferiu na transferência de massa do fluido através da coluna. O melhor desempenho foi obtido no sistema experimental que empregou o reator B, atingindo 89,7 ± 4,8% de rendimento e 40,4 ± 2,2 mgéster.gmeio -1.h--1 de produtividade. Na sequência o trabalho foi direcionado para a execução de testes empregando reatores de leito fixo (Reator B) duplo estágio incorporando uma coluna empacotada com resina catiônica (Lewatit® GF 202) para remover o glicerol formado e proporcionar um incremento na formação de ésteres de etila em relação ao primeiro estágio. O desempenho do reator foi avaliado para diferentes tempos espaciais (10 a 16h), mantendo fixas as demais condições operacionais (substrato constituído de óleo de macaúba e etanol na razão molar óleo: etanol de 1:12 e temperatura de 50 ºC). O funcionamento do sistema foi comprovado quantitativamente para tempos espaciais no sistema igual a 16h, resultando em valores médios de produtividade de 36,7 ??2,4 mgéster.gmeio -1.h-1com perdas mínimas de matéria-prima (rendimento de transesterificação = 96,3 ??2,1%), sem redução de eficiência durante 25 dias de operação. As amostras de biodiesel purificadas apresentaram baixos teores de monoacilgliceróis (3,8%) ausência de diacilgliceróis e viscosidade cinemática média de 5,8 ± 0,3 mm2.s-1, atendendo as normas vigentes pela resolução ANP n°14/2012, que estabelece viscosidade cinemática do B100 na faixa entre 3,0 - 6,0 mm2.s-1. O biocatalisador foi estável quanto suas características morfológicas e catalíticas, revelando tempo de meia-vida de 423 h. Desta forma, a configuração do sistema reacional constituído por reator de leito fixo duplo estágio com a remoção simultânea de glicerol tem grande potencial para atingir elevado rendimento de transesterificação, aumentando a produtividade de biodiesel e consequentemente diminuindo o custo do processo industrial. Em geral, os resultados foram promissores e mostraram o potencial do óleo de macaúba para ser usado como matéria-prima para a produção de biodiesel em fluxo contínuo. / The present study aimed at assessing the potential of macaw palm oil as a raw material for the synthesis of biodiesel by enzymatic route. The proposed experimental was to develop a process that was able to transesterify the macaw palm oil with ethanol by immobilized lipase in packed bed reactor under continuous flow, in order to obtain biodiesel having suitable properties to be used as a fuel. The enzyme chosen for the development of this work was the microbial lipase from Burkholderia cepacia immobilized on non-commercial hybrid matrix SiO2-PVA. Single and two stages packed bed reactors were tested. Initially the influence of the reactor dimensions and ratio between height (l) and diameter (d) in the performance of the ethanolysis of macaw palm oil was assessed. Tests were carried out using two reactors (A and B) having different geometric relations: Reactor A (l = 55 mm and d = 15 mm) and Reactor B (l = 210 mm and d = 14) which corresponded to height/diameter (l/d = 3.7 and l/d = 15), respectively. Runs were performed continuously for 20 days using substrate containing oil to ethanol molar ratio of 1:12 in a solvent-free system and fixed space time of 14h. Data suggested that the dimensions of the packed column had a slight influence on the biodiesel production and under the conditions tested, the highest relation (l/d = 15) did not affect the fluid mass transfer throughout the reactor column. Under these conditions runs carried out in the reactor B provided average yields of 89.7 ± 4.8% and productivities of 40.4 ± 2.2 mgester?g-1?h-1. Following this, a two-stage packed bed reactor incorporating a column with cationic resin (Lewatit® GF 202) to remove the glycerol formed as by-product was used. The reactor performance was quantified for four different flow rates corresponded to spatial times from 10 to 16 h. For each condition, the influence of spatial times in the ethyl esters formation, transesterification yields and productivities were determined. The reactor operation was demonstrated for spatial time igual to 16 h, attaining ethyl ester formation of 58.1?2.1 wt%, transesterification yields of 96.3 ??2.1% and productivities of 36.7 ??2.4 mgester?g-1?h-1 with no significant reduction in the efficiency during 25 days. The purified samples showed residual levels of monoglycerides (3.8 wt %), absence of diglycerides and average viscosity values of 5.8 mm2/s which can be considered appropriated according to Brazilian resolution ANP n° 14/2012. The immobilized lipase on SiO2-PVA was found to be stable regarding its morphological and catalytic characteristics, showing half-life time (t1/2) higher than 423 h. Therefore, the continuous packed-bed reactor connected in series with simultaneous glycerol removal has a great potential to attain high level of transesterification yields, raising biodiesel productivity, consequently decreasing industrial process cost. Overall, the results were promising and showed the potential of macaw palm oil to be used as feedstock for biodiesel production under continuous flow.

A DOW é uma empresa que busca continuamente por alternativas para agregar maior valor aos seus produtos através da avaliação das tendências apresentadas pela indústria química. Dentro desta dinâmica, identificou-se uma grande necessidade do mercado de fluidos de corte por inibidores de corrosão mais eficientes e adequados às novas questões regulatórias. Desta avaliação surgiu o tema deste Mestrado Profissional, no qual se estudou a síntese e aplicação de alcanolamidas em fluidos de corte como inibidores de corrosão. Optou-se pela síntese enzimática na ausência de solventes orgânicos por se tratar de uma nova tecnologia à DOW e estar alinhada aos preceitos de sustentabilidades promovidos pela empresa. A escolha pela avaliação das alcanolamidas surgiu de um estudo realizado pela companhia sobre novas tecnologias utilizadas neste segmento e a possibilidade de aplicação destes compostos em outros mercados de atuação da empresa. Foram sintetizadas quatro alcanolamidas, RMEA, RMIPA, RDIPA e RAEPD, obtidas respectivamente da reação entre o ácido ricinoléico e os aminoálcoois: 2-hidroxietilamina, 1-amino-2-propanol, bis-(2-hidroxipropil)amina e 2-amino-2-etil-1,3-propanodiol. O catalisador Novozym 435 (lipase) foi utilizado em todas as sínteses, e estas realizadas de acordo com um planejamento fatorial completo 23. Os produtos sintetizados foram caracterizados por RMN 13C, 1H e dept 135, Espectroscopia no Infravermelho e Espectroscopia de Massas. O rendimento das reações foi mensurado através da técnica de HPLC. Com base nos resultados obtidos foi possível, através do planejamento fatorial, determinar as condições reacionais nas quais o rendimento é maximizado (T = 80 °C; Catalisador = 15 mol/g de ácido ricinoléico; rotação = 600 rpm). A única desvantagem deste processo de síntese foi o custo inerente ao catalisador utilizado. Após o término do planejamento fatorial foram formulados oito fluidos de corte semissintéticos com as alcanolamidas sintetizadas e dois fluidos com o inibidor convencionalmente utilizado. Após verificar a estabilidade térmica destes fluidos, a eficiência à inibição da corrosão foi mensurada através da técnica de manchamento em ferro fundido. Os fluidos contendo as alcanolamidas apresentaram melhor desempenho à inibição da corrosão, porém, não foi possível mensurar quantitativamente as diferenças observadas através desta técnica. Com isso, os compostos foram submetidos a ensaios de perda de massa e polarização potenciodinâmica em ácido clorídrico, além de microscopia atômica para avaliar o efeito dos inibidores na superfície metálica. Através destes estudos foi possível comprovar que os produtos RDIPA e RAEPD possuem maior eficiência à inibição da corrosão. O mecanismo de inibição destes compostos, determinado através de isotermas de Langmuir, ocorre por fisissorção. Após a comprovação das propriedades anticorrosivas dos compostos sintetizados, foram analisadas as seguintes propriedades dos fluidos produzidos: viscosidade, formação de espuma, ângulo de contato, desgaste Reichert, alcalinidade e contaminação microbiológica. Observou-se um aumento da viscosidade e formação de espuma do fluido concentrado. Entretanto, comprovou-se que não há impacto significativo destas propriedades durante a aplicação destes fluidos. As alcanolamidas impactaram positivamente no aumento da lubricidade e reserva alcalina dos fluidos, além de diminuir a taxa de corrosão e a susceptibilidade dos fluidos à contaminação microbiológica, e facilitar o tratamento do resíduo gerado no processo de usinagem devido a maior biodegradabilidade das alcanolamidas. / DOW is a company that continuously searches for alternatives to add greater value to their products through the assessment of trends presented by the chemical industry. Within this dynamic it was identified a great need for more efficient and suitable (to new regulatory issues) corrosion inhibitors applied in metalworking fluids. This Master Thesis came up from this evaluation, where it was studied the synthesis and application of alkanolamides in metalworking fluids as corrosion inhibitors. The enzymatic synthesis in the absence of organic solvents was the chosen production process of alkanolamides because it\'s a new technology to DOW and it\'s aligned with sustainable precepts promoted by the company. The choice for the evaluation of alkanolamides emerged from a study conducted by the company on new technologies applied in metalworking fluids and the possibility of application of these compounds in other markets. It was synthesized four alkanolamides, RMEA, RMIPA, RDIPA and RAEPD, respectively obtained from the reaction between ricinoleic acid and following amino alcohols: 2-hydroxyethylamine, 1-amino-2-propanol, bis(2-hydroxypropyl)amine and 2-amino-2-ethyl-1,3-propanediol. The Novozym 435 catalyst (lipase) was used for all syntheses, and these were carried out according to a full factorial design for three factors. The synthesized products were characterized by NMR 13C, 1H and dept 135, Infrared and Mass Spectroscopy. The yield of the reactions was measured by HPLC technique. Based on the results it was possible, through the factorial design, determine the reaction conditions in which the yield is maximized (T = 80 ° C; Catalyst = 15 mol / g of ricinoleic acid; Speed = 600 rpm). The only disadvantage found of this synthesis process was the cost of the catalyst used. After the factorial design eight semi-synthetic metalworking fluids were formulated with the synthesized alkanolamides and two with the corrosion inhibitor conventionally used. After checking the thermal stability of these fluids, the corrosion inhibition efficiency was measured by staining technique of cast iron. Fluids containing alkanolamides performed better corrosion inhibition, however, was not possible to measure quantitatively the differences observed using this technique. Thus, the compounds were subjected to weight loss and potentiodynamic polarization tests in hydrochloric acid, besides the atomic microscopy to evaluate the effect of the inhibitors on the metal surface. Through these studies it was possible to demonstrate that RDIPA and RAEPD products were more efficient at inhibiting corrosion. The mechanism of inhibition of these compounds, as determined by Langmuir isotherms, is by physisorption. After checking the anticorrosive properties of the synthesized compounds, the following properties were analyzed from the formulated fluids: viscosity, foaming, contact angle, Reichert friction, alkalinity and microbiological contamination. It was observed an increase in viscosity and foaming on the concentrated fluids. However, it was found that there is no significant impact of these properties during the application of these fluids. Alkanolamides enabled an increase in lubricity and alkalinity of the formulated fluids. Additionally they reduced the corrosion rate and the susceptibility of fluids to microbiological contamination, and would make easier the treatment of the waste generated in cutting process due to their higher biodegradability.

Lipases são enzimas que catalisam a hidrólise de triacilgliceróis em ácidos graxos, mono e diacilgliceróis e glicerol. Em contraste com as esterases, lipases são ativadas apenas quando estão adsorvidas a uma interface óleo-água. Lipases têm sido amplamente utilizadas em muitos processos industriais, tais como química orgânica, formulações de detergentes e de produtos como cosméticos e farmacêuticos. A principal preocupação na produção de enzimas comerciais é a proteção da sua estabilidade em solução aquosa. A água facilita ou medeia uma variedade de vias de degradação física e química, durante as etapas de purificação, transporte e armazenamento. Por conseguinte, formulações sólidas são desenvolvidas para alcançar uma vida útil aceitável para essas substâncias. Spray drying é comumente usado como uma técnica de desidratação na indústria farmacêutica para fabricação de produtos em pó diretamente do estado líquido. No presente trabalho, a purificação e caracterização bioquímica de lipases produzidas pelo fungo endofítico Cercospora kikuchii, bem como os efeitos de adjuvantes no processo de secagem destas enzimas foram estudados. A lipase bruta foi purificada à homogeneidade através de cromatografia de interação hidrofóbica e gel filtração. A lipase foi purificada 5,54 vezes, com rendimento de 9% e a atividade específica de 223,6 U/mg. O peso molecular da enzima foi estimado em 65,1 kDa por SDS-PAGE e 73,5 kDa utilizando cromatografia de gel filtração, indicando que provavelmente trata-se de um monômero. A lipase mostrou um pH ótimo em 4,6 e uma temperatura ótima de 35°C. Cerca de 80,2% de sua atividade foi mantida após incubação a 40°C durante 2 horas. A Vmax e Km foram 10,28 mmol/min/mg de proteína e 0,03240 mM, respectivamente, utilizando pNPP como substrato. As lipases presentes no extrato bruto e as lipases ligadas ao micélio foram caracterizadas para avaliar o potencial de utilização em biocatálise. A lipases no extrato bruto apresentaram atividade máxima a 60ºC e pH 6,2, enquanto que as lipases ligadas ao micélio apresentaram atividade máxima a 50ºC e pH 5,4. Nos estudos de efeito da temperatura sobre a atividade enzimática, as lipases no extrato bruto mantiveram-se estáveis a 50°C, com 85,3% de atividade residual após 2 horas de incubação. As lipases ligadas ao micélio mantiveram pelo menos 75,1% de atividade residual após 2 horas de incubação a 80°C. Estes resultados mostram que as lipases de C. kikuchii têm propriedades cinéticas e termoestabilidade desejáveis para aplicações em biocatálise. As lipases presentes no extrato bruto foram secas em spray dryer com diferentes adjuvantes, e sua estabilidade foi avaliada. A recuperação da atividade enzimática após a secagem, com a adição de 10% de lactose, -ciclodextrina, maltodextrina, manitol, goma arábica, e trealose variou de 63 a 100%. A atividade da enzima foi totalmente perdida durante a secagem do extrato bruto na ausência de adjuvantes. A maioria dos adjuvantes utilizados manteve pelo menos 50% da atividade enzimática a 5°C e 40% a 25°C, após 8 meses de armazenagem. As lipases secas com 10% de - ciclodextrina mantiveram 72% da atividade a 5°C no mesmo período. A partir destes resultados preliminares foi realizada a otimização do processo de secagem utilizando -ciclodextrina, maltodextrina e lactose como adjuvantes. A análise estatística dos resultados experimentais permitiu a determinação das condições ótimas para a retenção da atividade enzimática (RAE), a saber: concentração de adjuvantes de secagem de 12,05%, temperatura de entrada do gás de secagem em 153,6oC e vazão do extrato enzimático alimentado de 9,36 g/min, para - ciclodextrina e maltodextrina como adjuvantes. Para lactose, o estudo mostrou que o aumento da quantidade de adjuvante de secagem e/ou diminuindo a temperatura do gás de entrada tem um efeito positivo sobre a retenção da atividade enzimática do produto seco. Após o processo de purificação foi realizada a secagem da enzima parcialmente purificada e da lipase pura, com estes três adjuvantes. A manutenção da atividade enzimática variou 90,6-100% quando foram utilizadas as condições ótimas para cada adjuvante de secagem. Concluindo, as lipases produzidas por C. kikuchii podem ser eficientemente secas por spray dryer, uma vez que a atividade enzimática foi mantida no extrato bruto, na lipase pura e na lipase semi-purificada submetidas à secagem. / Lipases are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols to fatty acids, mono and diacylglycerols, and glycerol. In contrast to esterases, lipases are activated only when they are adsorbed to an oilwater interface. They have been widely used in many industrial processes such as organic chemical, detergent and cleaning formulations and in products like cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. The main concern in the production of commercial enzymes is to protect their stability in aqueous solution. Water facilitates or mediates a variety of physical and chemical degradation pathways, active during protein purification, shipping and storage. Consequently, dry solid formulations are developed to achieve an acceptable protein shelf life. Spray drying is commonly used as a dehydration technique in the pharmaceutical industry for making powdery products directly from the liquid. In the present work, the purification and biochemical characterization of lipases produced by endophytic fungus Cercospora kikuchii as well as the effects of adjuvants on the spray drying process of theses enzymes were studied. The crude lipase was purified to homogeneity by hydrophobic interaction chromatography and gel filtration. The lipase purified was 5.54-fold with 9% recovery and the specific activity was 223.6. The molecular mass of the lipase was estimated to be 65.1 kDa using SDS-PAGE and 73.5 using gel filtration chromatography, indicating that the lipase is a monomer. The lipase demonstrated an optimum pH at 4.6, an optimum temperature of 35°C. About 80.2% of its activity was retained after incubation at 40°C for 2 hours. The Vmax and Km were 10.28 mol/min/mg protein and 0.03240 mM, respectively, using pNPP as substrate. The lipases present in crude extract and the mycelium-bound lipases were characterized in order to evaluate the potential for use in biocatalysis. The crude extract showed maximum activity at 60ºC and pH 6.2 while the myceliumbound lipases showed maximum activity at 50ºC and pH 5.4. In tests of the temperature effect on the enzymatic activity, the lipases in the crude extract was stable at 50°C, with 85.3% residual activity after 2 hours of incubation. The mycelium-bound lipases maintained at least 75.1% of residual activity after 2 h incubation at 80°C. These results show that the lipases of C. kikuchii have kinetic properties and stability characteristics suitable to applications in biocatalysis. The lipases present in crude extract were spray dried with different adjuvants, and their stability was evaluated. The recovery of the enzyme after drying with 10% of lactose, -cyclodextrin, maltodextrin, mannitol, gum arabic, and trehalose ranged from 63% to 100%; but the enzyme activity was lost in the absence of adjuvants. Most of the adjuvants used kept up at least 50% of the enzymatic activity at 5°C and 40% at 25°C after 8 months. The lipase dried with 10% of -cyclodextrin retained 72% of activity at 5°C. From these preliminary results the optimization of drying process using -cyclodextrin, maltodextrin and lactose as adjuvants was carried out. Statistical optimization of the experimental results allowed the determination of the processing conditions that maximized the retention of the enzymatic activity (RAE), namely: concentration of drying adjuvants of 12.05 %, inlet temperature of the drying gas of 153.6oC, and flow rate of the enzymatic extract fed to the dryer of 9.36 g/min, for the b-cyclodextrin and maltodextrin as adjuvants. For lactose as adjuvant the study showed that increasing the amount of drying adjuvant and/or decreasing the inlet gas temperature has positive effect on the retention of enzymatic activity of the dried product. After the purification process was carried out the drying of the partially purified enzyme and pure lipase, using these three adjuvants. The retention of enzymatic activity ranged from 90.6 to 100% when was used the optimal conditions for each drying adjuvant. Concluding, the lipases produced by C. kikuchii may be efficiently spray dried since its activity enzimatic was retained in crude extract, pure lipase and in semi-purified lipase after drying.