Heightened concerns for cleaner air and increasingly more stringent regulations on sulphur content in transportation fuels will make desulphurization more and more important. The sulphur problem is becoming more serious in general, particularly for diesel fuels as the regulated sulphur content is getting an order of magnitude lower, while the sulphur contents of crude oils are becoming higher. This thesis aimed to develop a desulphurisation process (based on oxidation followed by extraction) with high efficiency, selectivity and minimum energy consumption leading to minimum environmental impact via laboratory batch experiments, mathematical modelling and optimisation. Deep desulphurization of model sulphur compounds (di-n-butyl sulphide, dimethyl sulfoxide and dibenzothiophene) and heavy gas oils (HGO) derived from Libyan crude oil were conducted. A series of batch experiments were carried out using a small reactor operating at various temperatures (40 ¿ 100 0C) with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as oxidant and formic acid (HCOOH) as catalyst. Kinetic models for the oxidation process are then developed based on `total sulphur approach¿. Extraction of unoxidised and oxidised gas oils was also investigated using methanol, dimethylformamide (DMF) and N-methyl pyrolidone (NMP) as solvents. For each solvent, the `measures¿ such as: the partition coefficient (KP), effectiveness factor (Kf) and extractor factor (Ef) are used to select the best/effective solvent and to find the effective heavy gas oil/solvent ratios. A CSTR model is then developed for the process for evaluating viability of the large scale operation. It is noted that while the energy consumption and recovery issues could be ignored for batch experiments these could not be ignored for large scale operation. Large amount of heating is necessary even to carry out the reaction at 30-40 0C, the recovery of which is very important for maximising the profitability of operation and also to minimise environmental impact by reducing net CO2 release. Here the heat integration of the oxidation process is considered to recover most of the external energy input. However, this leads to putting a number of heat exchangers in the oxidation process requiring capital investment. Optimisation problem is formulated using gPROMS modelling tool to optimise some of the design and operating parameters (such as reaction temperature, residence time and splitter ratio) of integrated process while minimising an objective function which is a coupled function of capital and operating costs involving design and operating parameters. Two cases are studied: where (i) HGO and catalyst are fed as one feed stream and (ii) HGO and catalyst are treated as two feed streams. A liquid-liquid extraction model is then developed for the extraction of sulphur compounds from the oxidised heavy gas oil. With the experimentally determined KP multi stage liquid-liquid extraction process is modelled using gPROMS software and the process is simulated for three different solvents at different oil/solvent ratios to select the best solvent, and to obtain the best heavy gas oil to solvent ratio and number of extraction stages to reduce the sulphur content to less than 10 ppm. Finally, an integrated oxidation and extraction steps of ODS process is developed based on the batch experiments and modelling. The recovery of oxidant, catalyst and solvent are considered and preliminary economic analysis for the integrated ODS process is presented.

Thesis (MScEng (Process Engineering))--Stellenbosch University, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Recently, improved technologies have been developed for the biobutanol fermentation process: higher butanol concentrations and productivities are achieved during fermentation, and separation and purification techniques are less energy intensive. This may result in an economically viable process when compared to the petrochemical pathway for butanol production. The objective of this study is to develop process models to compare different possible process designs for biobutanol production from sugarcane molasses. Some of the best improved strains, which include Clostridium acetobutylicum PCSIR-10 and Clostridium beijerinckii BA101, produce total solvent concentrations of up to 24 g/L. Among the novel technologies for fermentation and downstream processing, fedbatch fermentation with in situ product recovery by gas-stripping, followed by either liquid-liquid extraction or adsorption, appears to be the most promising techniques for current industrial application. Incorporating these technologies into a biorefinery concept will contribute toward the development of an economically viable process. In this study three process routes are developed. The first two process routes incorporate well established industrial technologies: Process Route 1 consist of batch fermentation and steam stripping distillation, while in Process Route 2, some of the distillation columns is replaced with a liquid-liquid extraction column. The third process route incorporates fed-batch fermentation and gas-stripping, an unproven technology on industrial scale. Process modelling in ASPEN PLUS® and economic analyses in ASPEN Icarus® are performed to determine the economic feasibility of these biobutanol production process designs. Process Route 3 proved to be the only profitable design in current economic conditions. For the latter process, the first order estimate of the total project capital cost is $187 345 000.00 (IRR: 35.96%). Improved fermentation strains currently available are not sufficient to attain a profitable process design without implementation of advanced processing techniques. Gas stripping is shown to be the single most effective process step (of those evaluated in this study) which can be employed on an industrial scale to improve process economics of biobutanol production. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Onlangse verbeteringe in die tegnologie vir die vervaardiging van butanol via die fermentasie roete het tot gevolg dat: hoër butanol konsentrasies en produktiwiteit verkry kan word tydens die fermentasie proses, en energie verbruik tydens skeiding-en suiweringsprosesse laer is. Hierdie verbeteringe kan daartoe lei dat biobutanol op ʼn ekonomiese vlak kan kompeteer met die petrochemiese vervaardigings proses vir butanol. Die doelwit van die studie is om proses modelle te ontwikkel waarmee verskillende proses ontwerpe vir die vervaardiging van biobutanol vanaf suikerriet melasse vergelyk kan word. Verbeterde fermentasie organismes, wat insluit Clostridium acetobutylicum PCSIR-10 en Clostridium beijerinckii BA101, het die vermoë om ABE konsentrasies so hoog as 24 g/L te produseer. Wat nuwe tegnologie vir fermentasie en skeidingprosesse behels, wil dit voorkom of wisselvoer fermentasie met gelyktydige verwydering van produkte deur gasstroping, gevolg deur of vloeistof-vloeistof ekstraksie of adsorpsie, van die mees belowende tegnieke is om tans in die nywerheid te implementeer. Deur hierdie tegnologie in ʼn bioraffinadery konsep te inkorporeer sal bydra tot die ontwikkeling van ʼn ekonomies lewensvatbare proses. Drie prosesserings roetes word in die studie ontwikkel. Die eerste twee maak gebruik van goed gevestigde industriële tegnologie: Proses Roete 1 implementeer enkellading fermentasie en stoom stroping distillasie, terwyl in Proses Roete 2 van die distilasiekolomme vervang word met ʼn vloeistof-vloeistof ekstraksiekolom. Die derde proses roete maak gebruik van wisselvoer fermentasie met gelyktydige verwydering van produkte deur gas stroping. Die tegnologie is nog nie in die nywerheid bewys of gevestig nie. Om die ekonomiese uitvoerbaarheid van die proses ontwerpe te bepaal word proses modellering uitgevoer in ASPEN PLUS® en ekonomiese analises in ASPEN Icarus® gedoen. Proses Roete 3 is die enigste ontwerp wat winsgewend is in huidige ekonomiese toestande. Die eerste orde koste beraming van die laasgenoemde projek se totale kapitale koste is $187 345 000.00 (opbrengskoers: 35.96%). Die verbeterde fermentasie organismes wat tans beskikbaar is, is nie voldoende om ʼn proses winsgewend te maak nie; gevorderde proses tegnologie moet geïmplementeer word. Gasstroping is bewys as die mees effektiewe proses stap (getoets in die studie) wat op industriële skaal geïmplementeer kan word om die winsgewendheid van die biobutanol proses te verbeter. / Centre for Renewable and Sustainable Energy Studies

Hibiscus sabdariffa L. est une plante vivace herbacée localisée dans les zones tropicales et subtropicales des deux hémisphères. Au Sénégal, où elle a été introduite au 19ème siècle, H. sabdariffa, encore appelé bissap ou roselle, est cultivé sur l'ensemble du territoire et exploité principalement pour ses calices. Une boisson désaltérante est traditionnellement élaborée à partir des calices séchés par extraction à l'eau. La caractérisation physico-chimique et biochimique des calices nous a tout d'abord permis de mieux évaluer le potentiel de ce produit. Ainsi, les calices contiennent entre 767 et 1480 mg.100g -1 d'anthocyanes et entre 1347 et 3736 mg.100g-1 de polyphénols totaux. Ils présentent un pouvoir antioxydant voisin de 260 µmolTrolox.g-1. L'acide malique y est l'acide organique majoritaire avec une teneur pouvant atteindre 2,3 g.100g-1. De part ces caractéristiques, l'extrait aqueux de calices d'H. sabdariffa constitue une excellente source d'anthocyanes. Le travail s'est ensuite focalisé sur le procédé d'obtention de cet extrait. L'étude de l'extraction solide-liquide a été réalisée à partir de calices séchés et d'eau à des températures comprises entre 25 et 90 °C. Un rendement d'extraction en anthocyanes maximum de 88 % a été obtenu à 25 °C avec un ratio calice/eau de 1/25. La réduction de la taille des particules et l'augmentation de la température diminuent le temps d'extraction mais n'affectent pas le rendement d'extraction. Un modèle d'extraction solide-liquide incluant les cinétiques de dégradation thermique des anthocyanes a été proposé puis validé. La microfiltration tangentielle sur membrane céramique de diamètre moyen de pores 0,2 µm a permis de produire un extrait stérilisé à froid, stable pendant 90 j à 20 °C. Nous avons montré à ce niveau que la pression transmembranaire optimisée à un facteur de réduct ion volumique (FRV) égal à 1 n'est plus optimale lorsque le FRV augmente. Pour concentrer les anthocyanes présents dans l'extrait, l'ultrafiltration sur une membrane de seuil de coupure de 5 kDa peut être utilisée malgré une rétention incomplète (95-97 %). Par contre, la nanofiltration offre une rétention totale des anthocyanes. Le procédé, mis en uvre dans des conditions semi-industrielles, a permis d'augmenter la teneur en extrait sec soluble (ESS) de 40 à 250 g.kg-1 à 35 °C, à une pression transmembranaire comprise entre 20 et 30 bar avec un flux moyen de 15 kg.h-1.m-2. L'évaporation osmotique, testée sur un pilote équipé d'une membrane en polypropylène de 10 m2, a permis de concentrer l'extrait anthocyanique jusqu'à 620 g d'ESS.kg-1. Cet extrait concentré conserve toutes les qualités physico-chimiques, biochimiques, nutritionnelles et aromatiques de l'extrait initial. Le flux évaporatoire est directement corrélé à la teneur en extrait sec solub le du produit à concentrer. Enfin, divers couplages d'opérations unitaires ont été comparés pour obtenir un extrait concentré à partir de calices d'H. sabdariffa. Le procédé qui associe une extraction à froid, une pré-concentration par nanofiltration et une concentration par évaporation osmotique est la meilleure voie tant en terme de coûts d'investissement et de fonctionnement que de qualité de l'extrait. / Hibiscus sabdariffa L. is a herbaceous plant, cultivated largely in tropical and subtropical areas of both hemispheres. In Senegal, where it was introduced in the 19th century, H. sabdariffa L. also called bissap or roselle is grown throughout the territory and operated primarily for its calyx. A refreshing drink is traditionally made from dried calyx by water extraction. The physical-chemical and biochemical characterization of the calyx allowed us to assess better the potential of this product. Thus, the calyx contained between 767 and 1480 mg.100g-1 of anthocyanins and between 1347 and 3736 mg.100g-1 of total polyphenols. They have an antioxidant capacity closed to 260 μmolTrolox.g-1. Malic acid is the major organic acid with content up to 2.3 g.100g-1. Because of these characteristics, the aqueous extract of H. sabdariffa calyx is an excellent source of anthocyanins. The work was then focused on the process for obtaining this extract. The study of solid-liquid extraction was performed from dried calyx with water at temperature range from 25 and 90 ° C. A maximum extraction yield of anthocyanin of 88 % was obtained at 25 ° C with a solid-to-solvent ratio of 1/25. Reducing the particle size and increasing the temperature decreased the extraction time but do not affect the extraction efficiency. A model of solid-liquid extraction which included the thermal anthocyanins degradation kinetics has been proposed and validated. Crossflow microfiltration with tubular ceramic 0.2 pore size membrane has produced a cold sterilized extract, stable during 90 days at 20 °C. We have shown here that the transmembrane pressure optimized at a volume reduction ratio (VRR) equal to 1 is no longer optimum when the VRR is increasing. To concentrate the anthocyanins present in the extract, the ultrafiltration membrane with a cutoff of 5 kDa can be used despite incomplete retention (95-97%). By cons, nanofiltration offers a tot al retention of anthocyanins. The method, implemented in semi-industrial conditions, has increased the content of total soluble solids (TSS) from 40 to 250 g.kg-1 at 35 °C at a transmembrane pressure between 20 and 30 bar with an average flow of 15 kg.h-1.m-2. The osmotic evaporation, tested on a pilot equipped with a polypropylene membrane of 10 m2, has concentrated anthocyanin extract up to 620 g TSS. kg-1. This concentrated extract retains all the physical-chemical, biochemical, nutritional and aromatic quality of the original extract. The evaporation flux is directly correlated with the total soluble solids content of the product to concentrate. Finally, various couplings of unit operations were compared to obtain a concentrated extract from H. sabdariffa calyx. The process which combines a cold extraction, a pre-concentration by nanofiltration and concentration by osmotic evaporation is the best way both in terms of investment costs and operating and quality of the ext ract.

Cette étude porte sur la modélisation dynamique d'un pilote d'extraction liquide-liquide avec des contacteurs membranaires à fibres creuses. L'objectif de ce travail est donc le développement d'un outil de modélisation afin d'optimiser des contacteurs membranaires à fibres creuses pour l'extraction liquide-liquide dans deux applications différentes : l'extraction d'arômes et de cuivre des solutions aqueuses. Un modèle axial-radial et à fibre unique basé sur une analyse des résistances en série ont été décrits. Il a aussi été développé un modèle en régime transitoire capable de prédire la concentration en soluté dans les réservoirs d'alimentation en fonction du temps. Ces deux modèles ont été couplés afin de former un modèle dynamique intégré pour l'extraction liquide-liquide avec une unité membranaire. Une étude expérimentale a permis de déterminer le mécanisme d'extraction avec plusieurs systèmes et solvants et ainsi valider le modèle dynamique intégré. Le modèle a permis ensuite la détermination de l'influence de divers paramètres comme la configuration, la structure des membranes, l'hydrodynamique et les conditions de transport ou opératoires sur l'efficacité de la vitesse d'extraction. / The current study deals with the dynamic modelling of hollow fiber membrane contactor extraction plant. The objective of the study is to develop a simulation tool in order to optimize the membrane contactors for liquid-liquid extraction in two different applications: aroma and copper extraction from aqueous solutions. Axial-radial stage and single-fiber model of hollow fiber membrane contactor have been proposed based on resistance-in-series model. A separate dynamic model across reservoir has been developed based on macroscopic unsteady state mass transfer balance. Both models are, then, coupled to consolidate into an integrated dynamic model of the membrane-based solvent extraction plant. Experiments have been carried out to verify the reaction mechanism of various solvent extraction systems and to validate the integrated dynamic model. Model has been used to determine the influence of different module configurations, membrane structural para meters, hydrodynamic, transport and operating conditions upon the extraction efficiency and speed of extraction.

Enquanto as amêndoas de babaçu são conhecidas por fornecer óleo rico em zinco, fósforo e potássio, seu mesocarpo possui propriedades anti-inflamatórias ainda pouco exploradas. Este estudo visou determinar a composição físico-química e o potencial de toxicidade in vivo do óleo de amêndoas de babaçu e da farinha de seu mesocarpo (ambos extraídos com CO2 supercrítico) bem como avaliar a atividade anti-inflamatória do mesocarpo (extraído com etanol pressurizado). Os extratos foram obtidos via técnicas inovadoras de extração que evitam a degradação de compostos termossensíveis e os resultados aqui alcançados apontam para a composição de extratos obtidos via tecnologia verde e sua caracterização. A extração com fluido supercrítico (SFE) é uma tecnologia limpa (pois não emprega solventes orgânicos) e promissora para obter extratos enriquecidos em compostos com atividade biológica como, por exemplo, fitosterois. Por sua vez, a extração com líquido pressurizado (PLE) é considerada rápida, eficiente e seletiva, sendo este trabalho o primeiro a isolar os flavonoides do extrato etanólico do mesocarpo de babaçu extraído via PLE. Os resultados indicaram que os maiores rendimentos de extração do óleo foram de 55,34 g/100g usando álcool isopropílico como solvente pressurizado e de 53,12 g/100g usando etanol. Tais rendimentos representam 92,4 e 88,7% do total de óleo nas sementes, respectivamente. Rico em ácidos láurico, mirístico, oleico e palmítico, o perfil de ácidos graxos foi o mesmo para os dois solventes nas condições operacionais utilizadas. Com uso de álcool isopropílico, o extrato apresentou a maior concentração de β-sitosterol mediante 3 min de contato com o solvente (St) e 66% de volume de solvente (≅ 7,48 mL, SV). Com uso de álcool etílico, a maior concentração de β-sitosterol ocorreu para 3 min de tempo de contato (St) e 94% (≅ 10,25 mL) de volume de solvente (SV). Em função da composição de ácidos graxos, os principais TAGs presentes no óleo foram COL, LOL, LOM, LOP e MOP. Na SFE, os maiores rendimentos do óleo de babaçu variaram de 51,94 a 57,71 g/100g (para 25 MPa) e de 53,65 a 59,93 g/100g (para 35 MPa), para temperaturas de 40, 50, 60, 70 e 80 °C. A maior concentração de β-sitosterol (27,43 mg/100g de óleo) foi obtida na extração a 70 °C e 25 MPa. Os extratos do mesocarpo de babaçu também foram obtidos via PLE com etanol pressurizado. O maior rendimento (2,95%) e a maior concentração de fenólicos totais (1.257,25 mgGAE/100g) de pó dos extratos do mesocarpo de babaçu foram obtidos a 86 °C e 3 min (St). A maior atividade antimicrobiana na inibição de Staphylococcus aureus ocorreu extrações com menores tempos de contato (St) e elevadas temperaturas (na faixa supra), condições que também propiciaram os melhores rendimentos de extração e atividade antioxidante. O estudo de toxicidade foi feito para o óleo de amêndoas de babaçu obtido via SFE. Na dose aguda de 2.000 mg/kg e no estudo subagudo nas doses de 1, 3 e 5 mg/kg de óleo (doses repetidas), os resultados indicaram que este óleo não apresenta letalidade aos animais. Para avaliar a atividade anti-inflamatória foi utilizado o extrato do mesocarpo de babaçu obtido com etanol pressurizado a 86 °C e 3 min (St). Tal atividade foi confirmada para a dose de 30 mg/kg, administrada em ratos com processo inflamatório induzido com carragenina a 3%. Embora tenham sido constatadas a baixa toxicidade do óleo e a atividade anti-inflamatória do extrato do mesocarpo, mais estudos de avaliação toxicológica são necessários para aplicações do óleo de amêndoas e do extrato de mesocarpo de babaçu em produtos farmacêuticos, alimentícios e/ou cosméticos. / While babassu almonds are known for providing oil rich in zinc, phosphorus and potassium, its mesocarp has anti-inflammatory properties yet underexplored. The present study aimed at determining physical-chemical composition and in vivo toxicity potential of babassu almonds oil and its mesocarp flour (both extracted with supercritical CO2) as well as anti-inflammatory activity of babassu mesocarp (extracted with pressurized ethanol). Extracts were obtained using innovative extraction techniques that avoid the degradation of thermosensitive compounds and results here obtained point to the composition of extracts obtained via green technology and their characterization. Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) is a promising clean technology (as organic solvents are not employed) to obtain extracts enriched in compounds with biological activity (e.g. phytosterols). In its turn, pressurized fluid extraction (PFE) is considered fast, efficient and selective, this work being the first to isolate flavonoids from ethanolic extract of babassu mesocarp extracted via PLE. Results indicated that highest extract yields of babassu oil were 55.34 g/100 g with isopropyl alcohol as pressurized solvent and 53.12 g/100 g with ethanol as solvent. Aforesaid extracts respectively represent 92.4% and 88.7% of total oil in seeds. Rich in lauric, myristic, oleic and palmitic acids, the fatty acid profile was the same for the two solvents and applied operating conditions. Using isopropyl alcohol, extract had the highest β-sitosterol concentration for 3 min contact time with solvent (St) and 66% of volume of solvent, ≅ 22.44 mL (SV). Using ethyl alcohol as solvent, highest β-sitosterol concentration occurred for St = 3 min and SV = 94% ≅ 31.96 mL. According fatty acids composition, main TAGs present in oil were COL, LOL, LOM, LOP and MOP. In SFE, highest yields of babassu oil ranged from 51.94 to 57.71 g/100 g (at 25 MPa) and from 53.65 to 59.93 g/100 g (at 35 MPa) at temperatures of 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 °C. The highest concentration of β-sitosterol (namely, 27.43 mg/100g-oil) was obtained for extraction at 70 °C and 25 MPa. Babassu mesocarp extracts were also obtained via PLE with pressurized ethanol. The highest yield (2.95%) and the highest total phenolic concentration (1,257.25 mgGAE/100g) of babassu mesocarp extract were obtained at 86 °C and 3 min (St). The highest antimicrobial activity in Staphylococcus aureus inhibition occurred for lower contact time (St) values and higher temperatures (in aforesaid values), which were conditions also providing the best extraction yields and antioxidant activity. Toxicity study was carried out for babassu almond oil obtained via SFE. At the acute dose of 2,000 mg/kg and in subacute dose study at 1, 3 and 5 mg/kg of oil (repeated doses), results indicated that this oil did not present lethality in animals. Anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated by using babassu mesocarp extracted with pressurized ethanol at 86 °C and 3 min (St). Such activity was confirmed at 30 mg/kg dose administered in rats with induced inflammatory process with carrageenan at 3%. While low toxicity of oil and anti-inflammatory activity of mesocarp extract were both observed, further evaluation studies are required for applications of almond oil and babassu mesocarp extracts in pharmaceutical, food and/or cosmetic products.

No presente estudo objetivou-se avaliar o desempenho do etanol e isopropanol, absoluto e azeotrópico, na extração de óleo de macadâmia e milho. Nesse sentido, foram realizados experimentos de extração em batelada para determinar os efeitos do tipo de solvente e temperatura sobre o índice de retenção, rendimento de extração, qualidade do óleo e fração proteica. Assim, torta parcialmente desengordurada de macadâmia sem pré-tratamento prévio à etapa de extração (teor de lipídios 57,4 ± 0,7 % em base seca) foi submetida a extração, nas temperaturas de 60, 75 e 90 °C, enquanto as extrações de óleo do gérmen de milho em pellets (teor de lipídios 12,61 ± 0,05 % em base seca) foram realizadas a 50, 60, 70 e 80 °C. Os experimentos de extração em correntes cruzadas foram realizados a 70 e 75 °C para o gérmen de milho e a macadâmia, respectivamente. Os resultados mostraram que o rendimento de extração de óleo de macadâmia e milho é influenciado pelo tipo solvente, temperatura e pré-tratamento do material, sendo que com isopropanol absoluto, a 90 °C, foi possível extrair 66 % do óleo de macadâmia e a 80 °C, 87 % do óleo de milho. O índice de retenção de solução aderida as fibras (IR) foi impactado pelo tipo de solvente e características da matéria-prima, obtendo-se valores de IR maiores nas fases rafinado de macadâmia. A composição em ácidos graxos dos óleos de gérmen de milho extraídos com os solventes alcoólicos foi típica do óleo de milho, com predominância dos ácidos graxos oleico (34 %) e linoleico (48 %). As fases rafinado dos dois materiais apresentaram teor de proteínas maior que as matérias-primas iniciais, no entanto as condições do processo de extração impactaram negativamente no índice de solubilidade de nitrogênio, tornando inviável a produção de concentrado proteico de gérmen de milho. Para o óleo de milho a extração de tocoferóis e tocotrienóis foi maior com etanol, enquanto que com isopropanol conseguiu-se uma maior extração de carotenoides, o que pode ser decorrente da polaridade destes compostos bioativos. Os óleos de macadâmia extraídos com os solventes alcoólicos apresentaram maior estabilidade oxidativa (mais de 37 horas) quando comparados ao óleo bruto obtido por prensagem industrial (11,7 horas), sendo possível inferir que o uso dos solventes alcoólicos possibilita a extração de compostos que contribuem para o aumento da estabilidade do óleo. Nos experimentos em correntes cruzadas foi observado que para desengordurar a macadâmia com etanol e isopropanol absoluto são necessários mais de quatro estágios de contato, enquanto para o gérmen de milho dois estágios são suficientes. Em relação aos concentrados proteicos de macadâmia, o rendimento foi maior com os rafinados oriundos das extrações com isopropanol absoluto (13 %). Estes concentrados apresentaram boa capacidade de retenção de água e óleo (aproximadamente 2 g/g de concentrado) e estabilidade e atividade de emulsão na faixa de 56 a 59 %, desta forma pode-se sugerir que estes produtos apresentam potencial para seu aproveitamento na indústria de alimentos. A partir dos resultados pode-se inferir que a utilização dos solventes alcoólicos na extração de óleo de milho e macadâmia é tecnicamente viável, no entanto o desempenho dos solventes alcoólicos é influenciado pelas características da matéria-prima e pelo pré-tratamento do material sólido prévio à etapa de extração, obtendo-se maiores rendimentos de extração de óleo com o gérmen de milho em pellets. Também é possível inferir que os solventes em grau absoluto impactam menos na solubilidade das proteínas, permitindo a produção de concentrados proteicos de macadâmia com propriedades funcionais adequadas para seu uso na indústria de alimentos. / The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of ethanol and isopropanol, absolute and azeotropic, in the extraction of macadamia and corn oil. Accordingly, extraction experiments were performed in batch to determine the effect of solvent type and temperature on retention index, extraction yield, quality indices of oil and protein fraction. Thus, partially defatted macadamia meal without pre-treatment prior to the extraction step (lipid content 57.4 ± 0.7 % on dry basis) was submitted to extraction at temperatures of 60, 75 and 90 °C, while oil extractions of corn germ in pellets (lipid content 12.61 ± 0.05 % on dry basis) were performed at 50, 60, 70 and 80 °C. The crosscurrent extraction experiments were performed at 70 and 75 °C for corn germ and macadamia, respectively. The results showed that the oil extraction yield of macadamia and corn is influenced by the solvent type, temperature and pre-treatment of the material, being that with absolute isopropanol at 90 °C, it was possible to extract 66 % of the macadamia oil and 87 % of the corn oil at 80 °C. The retention index of the solution adhered to the fibers (RI) was affected by the type of solvent and characteristics of the raw material, obtaining higher values of RI in the raffinate phases of macadamia. The fatty acid composition of corn germ oils extracted with alcoholic solvents was typical of corn oil, with predominance of oleic acid (34 %) and linoleic acid (48 %). The raffinate phases of the two materials showed higher protein content than the initial raw materials, however the conditions of the oil extraction process had a negative impact on the nitrogen solubility index, turning the production of protein concentrate from corn germ infeasible. For corn oil the extraction of tocopherols and tocotrienols was higher with ethanol, whereas with isopropanol a greater extraction of carotenoids was obtained, which can be due to the polarity of these bioactive compounds. Macadamia oils extracted with the alcoholic solvents showed higher oxidative stability (more than 37 hours) when compared to crude oil obtained by industrial cold pressing (11.7 hours). It is possible to infer that the use of alcoholic solvents enables to extract compounds that contribute to the increase of oil stability. In the crosscurrent extraction experiments it was observed that to produce defatted macadamia with absolute ethanol and isopropanol more than four stages of contact are required, whereas for the corn germ two stages are sufficient. Regarding protein concentrates of macadamia, the yield was higher with raffinate phases coming from the extractions with absolute isopropanol (13 %). These concentrates showed good water and oil retention capacity (approximately 2 g/g of concentrate) and emulsion stability and activity in the range of 56 to 59 %, therefore it can be suggested that these products have potential for their use in the food industry. From the results it can be inferred that the use of the alcoholic solvents in the extraction of corn and macadamia oil is technically feasible, however the performance of the alcoholic solvents is influenced by the characteristics of the raw material and by pre-treatment of the solid material prior to the extraction step, obtaining the highest oil extraction yields with the corn germ in pellets. Also, it is possible to infer that the solvents in absolute degree impact less on the solubility of the proteins, enabling the production of macadamia protein concentrates with functional properties suitable for use in the food industry.

O ácido clavulânico (AC) é um potente inibidor de β-lactamases, sendo utilizado em associação com antibióticos β-lactâmicos. Atualmente, a purificação industrial do AC envolve, principalmente, processos de extração líquido-líquido com solventes orgânicos e etapas cromatográficas. Assim, métodos alternativos como os sistemas micelares de duas fases aquosas (SMDFA), os quais oferecem seletividade na partição de biomoléculas de acordo com sua hidrofobicidade, são de grande interesse. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo estudar a partição do AC em sistemas micelares não iônicos de duas fases aquosas, puros e com adição do sal (NH4)2SO4 ou do polímero sulfato de dextrana (Dx-S). Os estudos de estabilidade do AC mostraram que o fármaco é mais estável em pH 6,5 e temperaturas mais baixas (5 - 20 ºC). Em relação à presença dos aditivos, foi verificado que a adição do Dx-S acarretou em menor perda da estabilidade do AC quando comparado ao (NH4)2SO4, com valor residual ≥ 90% a 35 °C. Na presença dos tensoativos Triton X-114 e Triton X-100, o AC apresentou-se estável, com valor residual de aproximadamente 100%. De acordo com os ensaios de partição, o AC foi recuperado preferencialmente na fase pobre em micelas, tanto nos sistemas TX/tampão quanto TX/sal para ambos os tensoativos, com valores de coeficiente de partição (KAC) ~ 0,7 e rendimento na fase diluída (Yclavd) ~ 75%. A adição do polímero em maiores concentrações (≥ 8% p/p) proporcionou um pequeno aumento nos valores de KAC, porém com valores ainda próximos a 1 - 1,5. Portanto, os resultados demonstraram que a presença dos aditivos não influenciou suficientemente a partição do AC para a fase micelar e, desta maneira, os sistemas TX/tampão mostraram ser mais eficientes para a recuperação do ácido clavulânico na fase pobre em micelas, podendo ser empregados como etapa prévia de extração em um processo biotecnológico. / Clavulanic acid (CA) corresponds to a potent β-lactamase inhibitor that is used in association with β-lactamic antibiotics. The industrial purification of CA usually involves liquid-liquid extraction processes employing organic solvents followed by several chromatographic steps. Therefore, new purification alternatives such as aqueous two-phase micellar systems (ATPS) are of great interest. These systems can provide selectivity in biomolecule partitioning according to hydrophobicity and other molecular properties. Within this context, the main goal of this study was to investigate CA partitioning in aqueous two-phase micellar (nonionic) systems, with and without the addition of (NH4)2SO4 or dextrane sulfate (Dx-S). Stability studies performed with CA indicated that the drug is more stable at pH 6.5 and lower temperatures (5 - 20 ºC). In addition, it was demonstrated that Dx-S addition led to a lower loss of CA stability in comparisson to (NH4)2SO4, with residual values ≥ 90% at 35 °C. The drug was found to be very stable in the presence of the surfactants Triton X-114 and Triton X-100, with residual values around 100%. Regarding CA partitioning in the ATPMS, the drug partitioned preferentially to the micelle-poor phase, irrespective of the surfactante employed and of the presence of (NH4)2SO4,with partition coefficient (KAC) ~ 0.7 and yield in the poor phase (Yclavd) ~ 75%. Nonetheless, the addition of Dx-S in concentrations (≥ 8.0% p/p) resulted in a discrete increase in KAC, with values around 1 - 1.5. Therefore, the results obtained in this work demostrated that the addition of (NH4)2SO4 or Dx-S to ATPMS did not significantly influenced CA partitioning to the micelle-rich phase and, in this context, the systems investigated could be considered more eficiente for CA recovery in the micelle-poor phase, as a previous extraction step of a biotechnological process.

Óleos essenciais, basicamente formados por hidrocarbonetos terpênicos e compostos oxigenados, têm função aromatizante nas indústrias química, farmacêutica e de alimentos. Os compostos terpênicos são instáveis ao calor e sua remoção resulta em um produto mais estável e com maior valor comercial. No processo de desterpenação, a viscosidade é um parâmetro de grande interesse, pois afeta a perda de energia por atrito e os mecanismos de transferência de calor e massa. Devido o grande número de variáveis que podem afetar a viscosidade, como temperatura, pressão e concentração, métodos para estimar esta propriedade apresentam grande importância prática. O objetivo desta dissertação de mestrado foi ajustar o modelo UNIFAC-VISCO aos dados de viscosidade de sistemas similares aos resultantes do processo de desterpenação dos óleos essenciais de bergamota, hortelã e limão por extração líquido-líquido (ELL), a 25 ºC, utilizando etanol hidratado como solvente. O modelo foi programado utilizando a plataforma MATLAB® e a correlação foi realizada utilizando duas abordagens: na primeira, somente foram ajustados parâmetros referentes aos grupos funcionais ainda não descritos na literatura para o UNIFAC-VISCO, resultando em um desvio médio relativo (DMR) igual a 1,70 %; na segunda abordagem, todos os grupos funcionais foram ajustados aos dados experimentais, resultando em um desvio médio relativo (DMR) igual 0,68 %. Os parâmetros UNIFAC-VISCO foram ajustados utilizando um método heurístico o que possibilitou avaliar o desempenho de um método de inteligência computacional. A capacidade preditiva dos parâmetros obtidos foi testada nos sistemas semelhantes aos formados na desterpenação de óleo de eucalipto. Os valores de DMR para estes sistemas foram 3,56 e 1,83%, utilizando os parâmetros obtidos na primeira e na segunda abordagem, respectivamente. Estes resultados mostram que o modelo fornece uma boa estimativa desta propriedade e pode ser uma ferramenta útil para a indústria de alimentos e para o processo de extração, possibilitando a melhoria de processos e permitindo o projeto de equipamentos mais eficientes em escala industrial. / Essential oils, that are primarily composed for terpenoids and oxygenates, have flavoring function in the chemical, pharmaceutical and food industries. Terpenes compounds are unstable to heat and its removal results in a better quality product besides its higher commercial value. In the deterpenation process, the viscosity has a great importance since it affects the loss of energy by friction and the mechanisms of heat and mass transfer. There are a large amount of variables that can affect this parameter such as temperature, pressure and concentration and the use of estimation methods for this property becomes a tool of great practical importance. The aim of this dissertation was to adjust the UNIFAC-VISCO model to the kinematic viscosities of similar systems to those formed after deterpenation process of bergamot, mint and lemon essential oils, by liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) at 25ºC, with aqueous ethanol as solvent. The model was programmed using MATLAB ® platform and the correlation was accomplished using two approaches: in the first one, only parameters related to functional groups with no previous literature references to the UNIFAC-VISCO were adjusted, providing an average relative deviation (ARD) equal to 1.70 %; in the second approach, all functional groups were fitted to the experimental data, which provided an average relative deviation (ARD) equal to 0.68 %. The UNIFAC-VISCO parameters were adjusted by a heuristic method allowing the evaluation of a computational intelligence method performance. The predictive ability of the parameters was evaluated in similar systems to those formed in the deterpenation of eucalyptus essential oil. The ARD values between the experimental and the calculated viscosities were 3.56 and 1.83%, for parameters from first and second approach, respectively. These results show that the model provides a good estimation of this physical property and it can be a good tool for food industry and for extraction process, allowing process improvement and enabling the project of more efficient equipment on industrial scale.

Introdução: à despeito da evolução dos aspectos técnicos do tratamento dialítico ao longo das últimas décadas, hipotensão intradialítica (HID) continua a ocorrer em uma parcela significante das sessões. Esquemas alternativos de diálise, especificamente sessões prolongadas e/ou frequentes tem se mostrado benéficas e se associam a um melhor controle da pressão arterial e da anemia, maior remoção de fósforo, regressão da hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, melhor controle de hipervolemia e aumento da sobrevida dos pacientes. A adoção destes métodos mais intensivos, entretanto, não é unânime e a maior parte da população em diálise no mundo realiza hemodiálise (HD) convencional 3 x semana. A HD convencional está associada à HID e à remoção ineficaz de fosfato. Como as pernas são a principal fonte de fluido extracelular removido durante o HD, procurou-se reduzir a HID e aumentar a remoção de fosfato usando exercício com cicloergômetro e compressão pneumática, o que potencialmente proporcionariam maior retorno venoso dos membros inferiores, preservando o fluxo sanguíneo central e também fazendo com que mais fosfato pudesse chegar ao dialisador, facilitando sua eliminação. Métodos: este é um estudo com intervenção, cruzado, onde foram avaliados 21 pacientes, em 3 diferentes sessões de HD: controle, exercício com cicloergômetro durante os primeiros 60 minutos de HD e compressão pneumática durante os primeiros 60 minutos de HD. Os dados avaliados foram: distribuição de fluidos (através de bioimpedância), pressão arterial hora a hora durante a HD, parâmetros bioquímicos e de remoção de fosfato (através de quantificação direta do dialisado). HID foi definida como uma queda na pressão arterial média (PAM) >= 20 mmHg. Resultados: não houve diferença na taxa de ultrafiltração (p = 0,628), delta de peso (p = 0,415), delta de água corporal total, intracelular e extracelular entre controle, cicloergômetro e compressão pneumática (p = 0,209, p = 0,348 e p = 0,467, respectivamente). Comparando controle, cicloergômetro e compressão pneumática, o delta de PAM foi menos negativo durante a compressão pneumática [-4,7 (-17,2, 8,2), -4,7 (-20,5, -0,2) e -2,3 (-8,1,9,0) mmHg, respectivamente; p = 0,021]. HID ocorreu em 43%, 38% e 24% dos pacientes em controle, cicloergômetro e compressão pneumática, respectivamente (p = 0,014). A remoção de fosfato não aumentou com nenhuma intervenção (p = 0,486). A remoção mais elevada de fosfato foi dependente da ultrafiltração, fosfato sérico pré-diálise e PTH mais elevado. Conclusão: A compressão pneumática durante a primeira hora de diálise foi associada a menor HID, embora não tenha sido observado efeito nos parâmetros de distribuição de fluidos. Nenhuma das intervenções testadas, seja exercício ou compressão pneumática conseguiu aumentar a remoção de fosfato / Introduction: Despite the evolution of the technical aspects of dialysis over the last decades, intradialytic hypotension (DIH) continues to occur in a significant proportion of the sessions. Alternative dialysis schemes such as prolonged and / or more frequent sessions have been shown to be beneficial and are associated with better control of blood pressure and anemia, greater phosphorus removal, regression of left ventricular hypertrophy, better control of hypervolemia, and increased survival of patients. The adoption of these methods, however, is not unanimous and the majority of the dialysis population worldwide are on conventional hemodialysis (HD) 3x week. Conventional HD is associated with DIH and it is also ineffective to remove phosphate. Since the legs are the main source of extracellular fluid removed during HD, we sought to reduce DIH and increase phosphate removal by using cycling exercise and pneumatic compression, which would potentially provide greater venous return from the lower limbs, preserving blood flow, and also offering more phosphate to the dialyser, facilitating its elimination. Methods: We evaluated 21 patients in a randomized crossover fashion in which each patient underwent 3 different HD: control; cycling exercise during the first 60-min; and pneumatic compression during the first 60-min. Data obtained included bioelectrical impedance, hourly blood pressure measurement, biochemical parameters, and directly quantification of phosphate through the dialysate. DIH was defined as a drop in mean arterial pressure (MAP) >= 20 mmHg. Results: There was no difference in ultrafiltration rate (p=0.628), delta weight (p=0.415), delta of total, intracellular and extracellular body water among control, cycling and pneumatic compression (p=0.209, p=0.348 and p=0.467, respectively). Delta MAP was less changed by pneumatic compression when compared to control, cycling and pneumatic compression, respectively [-4.7 (-17.2, 8.2), -4.7 (-20.5, -0.2) and -2.3 (-8.1,9.0) mmHg; p=0.021]. DIH occurred in 43%, 38% and 24% of patients in control, cycling and pneumatic compression, respectively (p=0.014). Phosphate removal did not increase in any intervention (p=0.486). Higher phosphate removal was dependent on ultrafiltration, pre-dialysis serum phosphate and higher PTH. Conclusion: Pneumatic compression during the first hour of dialysis was associated with less DIH, albeit no effect on fluid parameters was observed. Neither exercise nor pneumatic compression increased phosphate removal

Há interesse mundial no desenvolvimento de pesquisas envolvendo produção e extração de colorantes naturais, devido a sérios problemas de segurança industrial associados ao uso de colorantes sintéticos. Este trabalho objetivou produzir colorantes naturais de Penicillium purpurogenum DPUA 1275 por cultivo submerso (em frascos agitados e em biorreator) e estudar a extração dos colorantes vermelhos. Para a produção, os estudos iniciais mostraram que 5 discos de micélio, sacarose e extrato de levedura como fontes de carbono e nitrogênio, respectivamente, e 336 horas de cultivo eram condições adequadas para a produção dos colorantes. Visando à otimização da produção, realizaram-se planejamentos fatoriais, com as variáveis independentes: tempo de cultivo; velocidade de agitação; pH; temperatura; concentração de sacarose e de extrato de levedura. As variáveis-respostas foram produção de colorantes amarelos, laranjas e vermelhos. Dos resultados obtidos, as variáveis mais significativas ao processo foram concentrações de extrato de levedura e de sacarose. A produção dos colorantes vermelhos foi otimizada, alcançando a produção de 2,97 UA490nm, nas condições 48,90 e 11,80 g/L de sacarose e extrato de levedura, respectivamente, 30°C, pH 4,5 150 rpm e 336 horas de cultivo. Nos experimentos em biorreator, o melhor resultado foi obtido na frequência de agitação de 500 rpm e na mudança do pH do meio para 8,0, após 96 horas de bioprocesso. Ademais, avaliou-se a estabilidade dos colorantes vermelhos presentes no meio fermentado em diferentes condições (pH, temperatura, sais, polímeros e tensoativos). Referente a pH e temperatura, os colorantes vermelhos mostraram-se mais estáveis nas condições alcalinas e a 70 °C. Tanto os sais (NaCl e Na2SO4) quanto os polímeros (PEG 1.000, 6.000 e 10.000 g/mol e NaPA 8.000 g/mol a 5 e 15%) e os tensoativos (Tween 20, CTAB e SDS) não causaram perda da cor nas condições avaliadas. Estudos de solubilidade e de coeficiente de partição octanol-água mostraram que os colorantes vermelhos apresentam solubilidade superior em solventes polares e característica mais hidrofílica. Nos estudos de extração, as técnicas avaliadas foram Sistemas Poliméricos de Duas Fases Aquosas (SPDFA) formados pelo sistema PEG/NaPA e Colloidal Gas Aphrons (CGA). Pela primeira técnica, os colorantes vermelhos migraram preferencialmente para a fase PEG. Os polímeros PEG 6.000 g/mol, na presença de NaCl 0,1 e 0,5 M, e PEG 10.000 g/mol, com Na2SO4 0,5M, se destacaram dentre as condições analisadas com coeficiente de partição (K) próximo a 13, em ambos os casos, e seletividade de proteínas (SeP) próximas a 3. Para a técnica de CGA, o CTAB proporcionou os melhores resultados, seguido do Tween 20. Porém, o valor de K foi inferior ao obtido com SPDFA, com um máximo de 5 (CTAB 2 mM/pH 9,0). Os resultados obtidos demonstram um novo produtor de colorantes naturais, as quais têm potencial de aplicação em diversos segmentos industriais. Ademais, os resultados obtidos mostraram a eficiência das técnicas utilizadas para extração dos colorantes vermelhos, com destaque para SPDFA, que apresentou maiores valores de K. / There is worldwide interest in developing research projects involving the production and extraction of natural colorants due to serious safety problems associated with industrial use of synthetic ones. The aim of this work was to investigate the production of natural colorants from Penicillium purpurogenum DPUA 1275 by submerged culture (rotatory shaker and bioreactor) besides studying the red colorants extraction. To the production step, initial studies showed that 5 agar mycelial discs, sucrose and yeast extract as carbon and nitrogen sources, respectively, and 336 hours of bioprocess promoted the best results. To optimize the colorants production a serie of factorial designs were performed. The independent variables studied were: fermentation time, agitation speed, pH, temperature, sucrose and yeast extract concentration under the responses production of yellow, orange and red colorants. From these results, the most significant variables for the process were sucrose and yeast extract concentration. The red colorants production was optimized achieving 2.97 UA490nm, in the following conditions: 48.90 and 11.80 g/L of sucrose and yeast extract, respectively, 30 °C, 4.5 pH, 150 rev min-1 and 336 hours of culture. In the experiments performed in bioreactor, the condition that promoted the best results was 500 rpm and pH adjusted for 8.0 after 96 hours of bioprocess. Furthermore, we evaluated the red colorants stability at different conditions (pH, temperature, salts, polymers and surfactants). Concerning to pH and temperature, the red colorants were more stable under basic conditions and 70 °C; not only the salts (NaCl and Na2SO4) but also the polymers (PEG 1000, 6000 and 10000 g/mol and NaPA 8000 g/mol) and the surfactants (Tween 20, CTAB and SDS) not promoted loss of color upon the conditions evaluated. Studies of red colorants solubility and octanol water coefficient showed that these compounds exhibit a higher solubility in polar solvents and present hydrophilic characteristics. Subsequently, the extraction of red colorant was evaluated through two extraction methods: Polymeric Systems Aqueous Two Phase (ATPS) composed by PEG and NaPA and Colloidal Gas Aphrons (CGA). For the first technique, the red colorant preferentially migrated to the PEG phase. The best results were obtained with PEG 6000 g/mol in the presence of 0.1 to 0.5 M NaCl and with PEG 10000 g/mol with 0.5 M Na2SO4. To both cases the partition coefficient (K) was close to 13 and the Selectivity in terms of proteins (SeP) was close to 3. For the CGA technique, CTAB gave the best results followed by Tween 20. However, the K values were lower than the ones obtained with ATPS with a maximum of 5 in the following condition: CTAB 2 mM/pH 9.0. For the SeP, the values obtained for both techniques were close. The results above show a new producer of natural colorants which have potential application in various industries. Moreover, the results show the efficiency of the techniques used to extract the red colorants, especially to ATPS that presented higher K values.