Le contentieux des tiers au contrat a connu depuis la décision Tropic travaux signalisation des changements profonds. Chaque année ou presque est intervenue une évolution, dont la dernière, l’arrêt Département de Tarn-et-Garonne, a ouvert à tous les tiers un recours de pleine juridiction contre le contrat. Cependant, afin de ne pas remettre en cause de manière exagérée la sécurité juridique des parties au contrat, le juge applique de multiples restrictions qui conduisent souvent à l’absence d’annulation du contrat, voire à l’absence de toute sanction.Les présents travaux permettent de dresser un état des lieux du droit positif, en particulier sur le maintien, certes limité, du recours pour excès de pouvoir. Ils envisagent ensuite des améliorations du contentieux des tiers au contrat. Celles-ci passent par une unification des voies de recours. Il est proposé de créer un recours précontractuel ouvert à tous les tiers y ayant un intérêt, et un recours contractuel, dont la recevabilité sera plus limitée. Il est par ailleurs envisagé de généraliser aux nouveaux recours un pouvoir de sanction pécuniaire, aujourd’hui réservé au seul référé contractuel. Ce pouvoir permet en effet de concilier la sécurité juridique des parties et le respect de la légalité pour les tiers au contrat. Il devrait être utilisé pour sanctionner les vices de pure forme, le juge ne disposant pas actuellement de pouvoir adéquat, sans remettre en cause l’acte. / The field of litigation by third parties to contracts has been undergoing major changes since the Tropic travaux signalisation decision was handed down. New developments have occurred almost on a yearly basis – the latest of which, the Département de Tarn-et-Garonne decision, has allowed third parties to fully challenge contracts. At the same time, in an attempt to limit the risks involved for the legal certainty expected by the contracting parties, courts apply multiple restrictive filters, which often results in the contract not being quashed, or even in the absence of any sanction.The paper contains an overview of the current state of applicable rules, with a particular emphasis on the continued - albeit limited - use of the traditional action for misuse of authority (recours pour excès de pouvoir). If then considers possible improvements to litigation by third parties to contracts. These improvements go through a unification of the existing actions. Our proposal is to create a pre-contractual action that would be available to any interested third party, along with a contractual action whose admissibility would be more limited. It is also envisaged to extend to these new actions the power to impose financial penalties that is currently limited to contractual fast-track challenges (référés contractuels). Indeed, this sanction allows a conciliation between the legal certainty expected by the contracting parties and the respect of the principle of legality pursued by third parties. Its use should target mere formal defects, as courts currently lack an adequate power in this case, without setting aside the contracts.

The thesis defines legal status of Liechtenstein in the European Economic Area. It is divided into three consecutive chapters. The first chapter consists of two parts - general and economic characteristics of Liechtenstein. The general characteristic is based on the author's experience supported by scientific literature, while economic subchapter is based largely on statistical data. The second chapter focuses on the legal status of Liechtenstein and its position on international scene. The position is viewed from two perspectives, which affects it the most. First, from the perspective of participation in selected international organizations and second, the influence of close relationship with Switzerland. The last chapter analyses international litigation to which Liechtenstein is a party. The aim of this thesis is to define the legal relations of Liechtenstein, which forms its position, using the methods of analysis.

O presente trabalho tem por objetivo analisar em que medida os instrumentos para a tutela coletiva de interesses transindividuais previstos no ordenamento jurídico brasileiro, em especial a ação coletiva, podem contribuir para o fortalecimento do mercado de capitais. Apresenta-se inicialmente a evolução histórica do mercado de capitais brasileiro. É apresentado o debate doutrinário a respeito das principais justificativas para a regulação e auto-regulação do mercado de capitais, seguido do panorama dos instrumentos atribuídos pelo legislador brasileiro à Comissão de Valores Mobiliários, às entidades autoreguladoras e aos investidores. O trabalho também trata da experiência norte-americana acerca das securities class actions, da atuação da Securities and Exchange Commission, e da possibilidade de aplicação das soluções desenvolvidas naquele país ao mercado de capitais brasileiro. Apresentam-se a evolução legislativa sobre os instrumentos de tutela coletiva e a análise sobre a utilização destes instrumentos atualmente, suas virtudes e limitações, com o objetivo de identificar os elementos para a sua adequada aplicação. / The purpose of this study is to analyze how the collective litigation tools available in the Brazilian legal system, particularly the class actions, may contribute to the strengthening of the Brazilian capital market. This study first discusses the historical evolution of the Brazilian capital market and the doctrinaire debate about the main rehaznos for regulation and self-regulation of capital market, followed by a brief description of the tools provided by Brazilians lawmarkers to the Brazilian Securities and Exchange Commission (Comissão de Valores Mobiliários), as well as to the self-regulatory entibies and investors. This study also explores the United States experience of securities class actions, the role of Securities and Exchange Commission and the possibility of application of the solutions designed in the United States of America to the Brazilian capital market. This study presents the legislative evolution of collective litigation tools and the analysis of their current uses, advantages and limitations in order to identify the elements for its suitable application.

L’étude de la notion d’économie du contrat a fait l’objet d’un intérêt doctrinal soutenu ces dernières décennies en droit français. Selon la doctrine française, l’économie du contrat est certainement l’une des notions prétoriennes les plus prédominantes du droit moderne des contrats. Notion changeante, la jurisprudence française y recourt depuis 1894, l’économie du contrat fut reprise en droit OHADA. Il n’est donc pas moins intéressant de s’interroger sur cette notion en droit OHADA, puisque celle ci est constamment usitée par les tribunaux. Son épanouissement reste cependant plus marqué en droit français où elle s’est vue reconnaître, une dimension constitutionnelle. L’enjeu étant davantage pratique, notre analyse s’inscrit donc dans une approche fonctionnelle de la notion, plutôt qu’à rendre compte des controverses négativistes auxquelles sa conceptualisation a souvent donné lieu. Il s’agira donc pour nous ici, et ce, à travers le prisme du droit comparé, de livrer un aperçu doctrinal des contours de la notion ainsi que les résultats auxquels elle permet d’aboutir en droit commun dans l’office des juges français et OHADA. L’étude tendant en outre, à délimiter un certain nombre de fonctions sans cesse grandissantes, et qui pourraient donc, être source d’insécurité juridique que le juge assigne à la notion dans le contentieux de l’interprétation des contrats, et pourquoi pas de tenter de rendre son usage fluide tout en limitant l’arbitraire judiciaire. / The study of the concept of contract economie has been the subject of a sustained doctrinal interest in recent decades in French law. According to the French doctrine, the economie of contract is certainly one of the most predominant concepts of modern contract law. As a changing concept, French jurisprudence has been resorting to it since 1894, the economiee of the contract was taken over by OHADA law. It is therefore no less interesting to examine this concept in OHADA law, since it is constantly used by the courts. Its development, however, remains more marked in French law, where it has been recognized, a constitutional dimension. Since the issue is more practical, our analysis is therefore part of a functional approach to the concept, rather than an account of the negativist controversies that its conceptualization has often given rise to. It will therefore be a question for us here, through the prism of comparative law, to give a doctrinal overview of the contours of the concept as well as the results which it allows to be achieved in common law in the office of the French and OHADA judges. The study also tends to delineate a certain number of functions which are constantly increasing, and which could, therefore, be a source of legal uncertainty which the judge assigns to the concept in litigation of the interpretation of contracts, and why not try to make its use fluid while limiting judicial arbitrariness.

La thèse entreprise a pour objectif d’essayer de définir un statut juridique de la procédure de dédouanement des envois postaux. La nature juridique des envois postaux justifie un traitement douanier autonome et distinct des formalités douanières applicables aux marchandises des échanges commerciaux internationaux. Les travaux réalisés devraient tout d’abord aider à répondre aux problématiques liées aux difficultés juridiques de la définition de cette procédure de dédouanement spécifique et leurs conséquences. L’étude portera particulièrement sur le règlement des différends entre les autorités douanières et les importateurs ou exportateurs d’envois postaux internationaux en cas de litige lié au dédouanement. Au préalable, il faut donc relever et clarifier les règles juridiques qui sont déjà applicables au dédouanement des envois postaux, tant au niveau national et européen, qu'au niveau international en ce domaine. Cependant, cela se révèle difficile, et il faut rester opiniâtre devant l'extrême diversité des sources et des textes, parsemés dans de nombreuses branches du droit. Il faut ensuite nécessairement tenter de redéfinir, clairement et simplement, la notion d’envoi postal et la notion de service postal universel justifiant l'application d'une procédure spécifique de dédouanement des envois postaux. La notion de service postal universel implique un dédouanement rapide des envois postaux. Les administrations douanières ont, elles, l’obligation d’assurer le contrôle de toutes les marchandises importées ou exportées de leurs territoires nationales. La mission principale des autorités douanières est de protéger l’attractivité économique des Etats. Les agents douaniers doivent, d’une part, prélever les droits de douane et taxes à l’importation, d’autre part, lutter contre les trafics illicites de marchandises prohibées ou soumises à restriction. La délicate combinaison de l’universalisme du service postal et des obligations douanières doit permettre la reconnaissance et l’établissement d’une procédure de dédouanement spécifique aux envois postaux impliquant une nouvelle détermination des envois relevant du service postal universel et la mise en place de règles de dédouanement obligatoires et communes à l’ensemble des services postaux internationaux. La mise en œuvre d’une coopération internationale renforcée entre les services postaux et les autorités douanières est, en ce sens, préalablement indispensable. L’étude doit permettre de rendre compréhensible, pour les entreprises et les particuliers nationaux et européens, le droit positif douanier applicable au dédouanement postal. On analysera notamment les infractions et les règles douanières sanctionnant les diverses fraudes que l’on retrouve le plus fréquemment en pratique. L’essai sur la définition d'un statut juridique de la procédure de dédouanement des envois postaux démontrera qu’il est impératif de renforcer les pouvoirs et les moyens de contrôle et de sanctions des autorités douanières pour ce type singulier de dédouanement. Les voies de recours non-contentieuses et contentieuses qui sont ouvertes aux redevables et requérants feront également l’objet d’un traitement particulier. Les droits des redevables ou requérants sont notamment garantis par le principe de contrôle de la légalité des décisions de l’Administration des douanes et de ses agents par le juge judiciaire. Le juge judiciaire et le droit européen limitent et encadrent les pouvoirs exorbitants des autorités douanières. / The thesis undertaken aims to try to define a legal status of the procedure of taking out of bond of the postal sendings. The legal nature of the postal sendings justifies a customs treatment autonomous and distinct from the customs formalities applicable to the goods of the international commercial exchanges. The completed works should first of all help to answer the problems related to the legal difficulties of the definition of this procedure of specific taking out of bond and their consequences. The study will relate particularly to settlement of disputes between the customs authorities and the importers or exporters of international postal sendings in the event of litigation related to the taking out of bond. As a preliminary, it is thus necessary to raise and clarify the legal rules which are already applicable to the taking out of bond of the postal sendings, so much at the national and European level, that with the international level in this field. However, that appears difficult, and there is necessary to remain obstinate in front of the extreme diversity of the sources and the texts, strewn in many branches with the right. It is then necessarily necessary to try to redefine, clearly and simply, the concept of postal sending and the notion of universal postal service justifying the application of a specific procedure of taking out of bond of the postal sendings. The concept of universal postal service implies a fast taking out of bond of the postal sendings. The customs administrations have, they, the obligation to ensure the control of all the imported or exported goods their territories main roads. The main mission of the customs authorities is to protect the economic attractivity from the States. The customs agents must, on the one hand, take the customs duties and import taxes, on the other hand, to fight against the illicit traffics of goods prohibited or subjected to restriction. The delicate combination of the universalism of the postal service and the customs obligations must allow the recognition and the establishment of a procedure of taking out of bond specific to the postal sendings implying a new determination of the sendings concerned with the universal postal service and the installation of rules of taking out of bond obligatory and communes the whole of the international postal services. The implementation of an international cooperation reinforced between the postal services and the customs authorities is, in this direction, beforehand essential. The study must make it possible to make comprehensible, for the companies and the individuals national and European, the customs substantive law applicable to the postal taking out of bond. One will analyze in particular the customs infringements and rules sanctioning the various frauds which one finds most frequently in practice. The test on the definition of a legal status of the procedure of taking out of bond of the postal sendings will show that it is imperative to reinforce the powers and the means of control and sanctions of the customs authorities for this singular type of taking out of bond. The not-contentious and contentious appeals which are opened up for the debtors and applicants will also be the object of a particular treatment. The rights of the debtors or applicants are in particular ensured by the principle of control of the legality of the decisions of the Customs and Excise and of its agents by the legal judge. The legal judge and the European right limit and frame the exorbitant powers of the customs authorities.

Climate change has proven to be a real threat to human rights over the past years. The complex and layered link has been acknowledged, explored and nowadays it represents a justly feared aspect of climate change. Intentions of not only scientific, but also scholarly society has been therefore spinning around the question, how to stop the dangers stemming from the climate change and prevent further human rights violations. A climate litigation, born in the USA, and having spread the idea around the world seems to be one of the options to (partly) resolve the situation. The trend has been expanding over the past years and has become a phenomenon. Elderly, children and farmers take not only states, but also the biggest private emitters of GHGs known as Carbon Majors to court. The main objective of this thesis has been to discover the way to success in climate litigation cases based on human rights argumentation. The aim has been to generate an exemplary set of advices for drafters aiming at filing a climate lawsuit. Together with this question, the author had a particular interest in assessing the capability of human rights arguments to succeed on its own without additional support from other legal areas, such as tort law. The leading methodology used in this thesis was a comparison of legal arguments...

El presente trabajo es una lectura de la obra jurídica de Michele Taruffo desde la teoría y la filosofía del derecho. Consiste en reconstruir la obra del profesor lombardo, dispersa a lo largo de cinco décadas, no como un sistema de derecho procesal o una línea de monografías coherente -que serían lecturas posibles-, sino como una teoría de la decisión judicial, a partir de dos ejes cardinales que son recurrentes en sus trabajos: el concepto de motivación de la sentencia y el concepto de prueba. Para ello, la investigación parte de describir el marco de las principales influencias teóricas en la formación del profesor de la Universidad de Pavía, desde tres perspectivas: la del procesalismo italiano, la de la iusfilosofía analítica y la de un conjunto heterogéneo de autores, desde comparatistas a teóricos, con los que se cruzó la obra de Taruffo. La parte propositiva consiste en reconstruir aquello en lo que consiste la obra fundamental del autor: el concepto de jurisdicción, el concepto de decisión judicial que se deriva del primero, y el concepto de prueba. El primero supone una lectura -en clave de “alta dogmática”- de la actividad consistente en resolver controversias y de los presupuestos de su legitimidad. El segundo redescubre la funcionalidad de la motivación de la sentencia judicial desde las razones por las que se exige en los ordenamientos modernos. El tercero se concentra en la racionalidad subyacente a la búsqueda (de la fijación) de la verdad en las premisas que integran el discurso justificativo de las decisiones judiciales.

Clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) are statements that include recommendations intended to optimize patient care that are informed by a systematic review of evidence and an assessment of the benefits and harms of alternative care options. CPGs’ recommendations have traditionally focused on informing clinicians and patients on the best options, i.e., supporting decisions that occur at the clinical encounter level. Considering all their advantages (a systematic and comprehensive review of the evidence, a multidisciplinary team assessing the evidence and balancing benefits and harms, and the additional considerations such as patients’ preferences, implementability and feasibility of interventions and their costs) CPGs have also become powerful tools to inform decisions and activities outside the clinical encounter. This, because the clinical encounter cannot be completely separated from other decisions that indirectly affect that level, such as those related to quality improvement activities and economic decisions in healthcare. Moreover, activities that are not directly related to the clinical encounter can benefit from CPGs, like education and licensing activities and research prioritization processes, or judicial decisions. The role of CPGs in all these activities has been neglected in the literature. In this study, I performed a critical interpretive synthesis of the literature to summarize the different roles CPGs play outside the clinical encounter and to understand how, and under what conditions CPGs are used in these roles. I also conducted an international survey to describe how frequent these roles exist, from the CPGs developers' perspectives. Lastly, I conducted a multiple case study to understand how and under what conditions CPGs play one of the main roles outside the clinical encounter (drug funding decisions), in two different settings (Colombia and Canada/Ontario). Based on the results, I developed a framework to describe and categorize the roles of CPGs outside the clinical encounter and to determine how and under what conditions CPGs are used in these roles. I highlighted the key areas that require additional methodological research and categorize the roles in main, secondary and unanticipated roles. I also described how international developers reported that CPGs play these roles and how these roles are part of their CPGs final aims in the second study. Lastly, in the case study, I revealed that CPGs were instrumentally used to inform one of the main roles, drug funding decisions, in the Colombian case, and they had a minor conceptual use in the case of Canada/Ontario. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The progression of climate change has brought the issue of intergenerational justice further into focus. At the same time, there has been a global increase in climate litigation. Activists increasingly use litigation and fundamental and human rights as instruments to enforce their demands for intergenerational justice. This thesis, therefore, focuses on the question of whether climate litigation can transform intergenerational justice from a political norm into a human rights-based, justiciable right.  Previous studies identified a human-rights turn in climate litigation. In addition, other studies revealed that climate activists are increasingly using intergenerational framing. However, the relationship between intergenerational justice and human rights is understudied.  This thesis addresses the existing research gap. Utilizing a mechanism-based account, the legal framing and the legal interpretation of the Neubauer case, decided by the German Federal Constitutional Court are analyzed to show the transformation of intergenerational justice into a matter of human rights. Moreover, climate litigation cases at the ECtHR are analyzed whether they contain references to Neubauer to identify indicators for a precedent-setting effect upon the supranational human rights framework of ECHR. This thesis demonstrates the importance of climate litigation as a policy tool in national and international climate governance.

[pt] A sociedade de risco simboliza o momento civilizatório atual, em que os efeitos secundários não desejados de uma modernização exitosa (para os que com ela se beneficiam, frise-se) se tornaram incontroláveis. Mais do que isso. Vive-se atualmente em um mundo em metamorfose, no qual as certezas da sociedade moderna estão sendo solapadas diante de eventos globais significativos (Beck, 2017), como as mudanças climáticas e a pandemia do Covid-19. Dessa forma, não se pode prever, mesmo diante de todo o avanço do conhecimento técnico-científico, qual será o impacto dessa crise humanitária avassaladora que atinge a todos e ressalta a efemeridade do ser humano diante dos efeitos colaterais do mundo moderno. Embora os riscos climáticos apresentem uma tendência globalizante e um efeito equalizador, a distribuição de tais riscos costuma seguir a lógica da vulnerabilidade local, ocorrendo de forma socialmente desigual e injusta. A articulação da teoria do risco com o movimento da justiça ambiental e climática possibilita questionar a iniquidade na distribuição de riscos ambientais, em especial os climáticos, além de introduzir importantes ferramentas conceituais que problematizam a privatização de bônus e a socialização de ônus decorrentes da exploração de atividades poluentes. As instituições, como o Estado e o próprio Direito, que deveriam regulamentar e controlar a sua produção e externalidade, acabam produzindo uma espécie de normalização de riscos, de modo a legitimar os conflitos resultantes de situações de injustiça socioambiental, fenômeno que Ulrich Beck (1995) denomina de irresponsabilidade organizada. A insuficiência de respostas domésticas à produção de riscos globais e a ausência de coercitividade do direito internacional sinalizam o relevante papel que os Tribunais em todo o mundo – apesar das limitações e contradições inerentes ao próprio Poder Judiciário enquanto instituição estatal – estão sendo instados a atuar na governança climática, decidindo ações em que se discutem lacunas legislativas e regulatórias, descumprimento de metas de redução e compromissos climáticos, sob a releitura de direitos fundamentais no tratamento de conflitos climáticos, à luz do chamado constitucionalismo climático. Utiliza-se o método indutivo e a metodologia de pesquisa se baseia, além da análise da previsão normativa, na revisão bibliográfica nacional e internacional e no estudo dos precedentes judiciais brasileiros e estrangeiros de maior repercussão envolvendo matéria climática. Espera-se que a análise articulada da teoria da sociedade de risco e do movimento da justiça ambiental aliado à perspectiva climática forneça importantes subsídios teóricos para a confirmação da hipótese levantada nesta tese, a saber: se (e como) a litigância climática pode representar uma importante estratégia de promoção da justiça climática para contribuir para a redução das desigualdades socioambientais resultantes da produção e externalização injusta e desigual de riscos climáticos, mediante aplicação de ferramentas já existentes no sistema jurídico pátrio voltadas à prevenção e reparação de impactos e danos climáticos. / [en] The risk society symbolizes the current civilizational moment, in which the unwanted side effects of successful modernization (for those who benefit from it, it should be noted) have become uncontrollable. More than that. We currently live in a world in metamorphosis, in which the certainties of modern society are being undermined in the face of significant global events (Beck, 2017), such as climate change and the Covid-19 pandemic. In this way, it is not possible to predict, even in the face of all the advance of technical-scientific knowledge, what will be the impact of this overwhelming humanitarian crisis that affects everyone and highlights the ephemerality of the human being in the face of the side effects of the modern world. Although climate risks have a globalizing trend and an equalizing effect, the distribution of such risks usually follows the logic of local vulnerability, occurring in a socially unequal and unfair way. The articulation of risk society theory with the environmental and climate justice movement makes it possible to question the inequity in the distribution of environmental risks, especially climatic ones, in addition to introduce important conceptual tools that problematize the privatization of bonds and the socialization of burdens resulting from the exploitation of polluting activities. Institutions, such as the State and the legal system, which should regulate and control the production and the externality of these risks, end up producing a kind of risk normalization, in order to legitimize conflicts resulting from situations of socio-environmental injustice, a phenomenon that Ulrich Beck (1995) calls organized irresponsibility. The insufficiency of domestic responses to the production of global risks and the lack of coerciveness of international law signal the relevant role that Courts around the world - despite the limitations and contradictions inherent to the Judiciary itself as a state institution - are being urged to act in climate governance, deciding actions that discuss legislative and regulatory gaps, non-compliance with reduction targets and climate commitments, under the reinterpretation of fundamental rights in the treatment of climate conflicts, in the light of the so-called climate constitutionalism. The inductive method is used and the research methodology is based, in addition to the analysis of applied legislation, on the national and international bibliographic review and on the study of Brazilian end foreign judicial precedents of greater repercussion involving climate matters. It is expected that the articulated analysis of the risk society theory and the environmental justice movement allied to the climate perspective will provide important theoretical support to confirme the hypothesis raised in this thesis, namely: if (and how) climate litigation can represent a important strategy to promote climate justice to contribute to the reduction of socio-environmental inequalities resulting from the unjust and unequal production and externalization of climate risks, through the application of existing tools in the national legal system aimed at preventing and repairing climate impacts and damages.