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數世紀以來，《威尼斯商人》(The Merchant of Venice, 1596-1598)的批評總聚焦在「猶太人問題」(the Jewish question) 與「女人問題」(the woman question) 上：劇中放高利貸的夏洛 (Shylock) 體現了猶太人的原型，而富有、機智的波黠 (Portia) 則是強勢女性的代表。然而，這種閱讀方式將兩個問題分開處理，忽略了兩者在劇中密切的關聯，僅只以審判一景聯繫兩個角色所代表的問題。 　　本論文嘗試以「禮物交換」(gift exchange) 重新閱讀《威尼斯商人》。牟斯 (Marcel Mauss) 的著作《禮物》(The Gift, 1925) 初步定義原始社會中的交換行為與其涵意，奠定了禮物研究的基礎。禮物交換所建構的社會關係複雜多變，因此，除牟斯外，本論文亦援引佳寶 (Jacques T. Godbout) 與楊 (Iris Marion Young) 的理論，以期透視《威尼斯商人》中的角色在禮物交換之下的互動與劇情發展。 　　根據喜福特 (Alan D. Schrift) 所言，禮物描繪了「主體間的互動」(intersubjective interaction)。立基於此概念，並以上述等人的理論為架構，本論文由三個面向逐步探討《威尼斯商人》中基督男性的「自我」(self) 與猶太／女性「他者」(other) 間的禮物交換：（一）禮物交換的基礎；（二）禮物交換的聯繫與風險；（三）非對稱交換關係與重建關係。劇中安東尼 (Antonio) 與巴薩紐 (Bassanio) 的友情為禮物交換的基礎，進一步展現禮物特色，牽連／牽絆夏洛與波黠，發揮禮物效應，帶出多重「非對稱」(asymmetry) 的要素，終致重建四人的關係。 / For centuries, the Jewish question and the woman question have always been the salient concerns for criticisms of The Merchant of Venice (1596-1598): whereas Shylock the usurer embodies a Jewish archetype, Portia the clever heiress presents a powerful female figure. Nevertheless, treating the Jewish question and the woman question separately, this kind of reading ignores the close relationship between the two in the play, and connects them loosely only with the trial scene. This thesis reads The Merchant of Venice in the perspective of gift exchange. Founding the studies of the gift, Marcel Mauss’s The Gift (1925) firstly defines the reciprocity and the significance of gift exchange in archaic societies. Since social relationship established by gift exchange is subject to change, this thesis also draws on Jacques T. Godbout’s and Iris Marion Young’s theories to probe into the interaction of characters and the movement of The Merchant of Venice. According to Alan D. Schrift, the gift depicts “intersubjective interaction” (18). Based on this concept and structured with the above theories, the thesis examines gift exchange between the Christian male “self” and its Jewish/female other in The Merchant of Venice step by step in three dimensions: (1) the basis of gift exchange; (2) bond and risk in gift exchange; (3) asymmetrical reciprocity and reestablished relation. In the play, gift exchange brings its effect of bond and feature of asymmetry into full play. Grounded on the friendship between Antonio and Bassanio, gift exchange links/restrains Shylock and Portia, and reestablishes the characters’ relationships as a result.

This thesis examines how sovereign lending, i.e. the practice of lending capital to sovereigns, has changed since the early nineteenth century. It tackles this question by investigating how lenders have thought about sovereigns for the past two centuries, focusing on the tools they have used to know and represent them. I argue that there was a critical shift in the early twentieth century in terms of the kinds of knowledge lenders deployed to know sovereigns. This shift differentiates the old sovereign lending from the new. In the old sovereign lending, merchant banking families such as the Rothschilds knew sovereigns through intensely personal relations based on gentility, whereas in the new sovereign lending, joint stock banks, credit rating agencies and international institutions largely came to know sovereigns through statistics. Though difficult to imagine nowadays, the description of sovereigns through quantifiable facts (the original definition of 'statistics') was revolutionary for early twentieth century lenders. Despite constituting the origins of sovereign credit ratings, this key shift has been overlooked in all major studies about sovereign debt. The new sovereign lending rose to prominence from the interwar period to the 1970s and now defines our world. The identification of this crucial shift is based on the development and application of the concept of forms of knowledge. Forms of knowledge refer to enduring ways of knowing and representing the constituent units of the international system used by international practitioners (e.g. diplomats, military strategists, financiers, and international lawyers). Examples of forms of knowledge include, but are not limited to, modern cartography, international treaties, statistics, gentility, and heraldry. The use of this concept is that it leads to a better understanding of how international practitioners and their practices undergo radical changes. In so doing, it provides a firmer empirical grasp on the question of how fundamental discontinuities arise in international relations.

In this article, the author describes the problems that come through the Peruvian shipping companies because of misinterpretations made by the tax authority about the scope of the Law for reactivation and promotion of the National Merchant Marine; to harmful tax collection procedures and poor debt settlement system controversies between taxpayers and the Tax Administration. / En el presente artículo, el autor describe los problemas por los que viene atravesando las empresas navieras peruanas debido a las equivocadas interpretaciones que realiza la Administración Tributaria acerca de los alcances de la Ley de reactivación y promoción de la Marina Mercante Nacional; a los perjudiciales procedimientos de cobranza de deudas tributarias, y al deficiente sistema de solución de controversias suscitadas entre los contribuyentes y la Administración Tributaria.

I detta arbete har uppfattningar beträffande överstyrmans roll i förhållande till däcksmanskapets motivation till arbetet undersökts. Data har samlats in från åtta personer som arbetat som överstyrmän genom ett skriftligt formulär och en intervju som gett kvalitativa utsagor inom tre huvudområden: Motivationshöjande åtgärder från överstyrman, Övriga faktorer som påverkar motivationen samt Organisatoriskt stöd som överstyrman har i sitt arbete med att motivera matroserna. En majoritet av de intervjuade anger att det är viktigt med: Arbetets innehåll och att det känns meningsfullt och sammanhållningen i arbetsgruppen. Särskilt viktigt uppfattar överstyrmän är att ge personalen ansvar och feedback på utfört arbete, skapa delaktighet för verksamheten ombord samt arbeta med mål och resultatuppföljning. Deras uppträdande gentemot sina medarbetare är viktigt för motivationen ombord. Man ska bemöta besättningen respektfullt. Andra faktorer som är viktiga för motivationen är bland annat: anställningsförhållanden, maten, trivselaktiviteter, tillgång till gym och internet. Det organisatoriska stödet till överstyrman har visat sig förhållandevis svagt utvecklat och verkar inte heller saknas i någon större utsträckning. Den faktorn som anses viktigast och som fungerar är tydliga mål och förväntningar från befälhavaren. / In this thesis perceptions of the role of the Chief officer in relation to the crew's motivation for work has been investigated. Data has been collected from eight people who worked as Chief officers through a questionnaire and interviews which has given qualitative statements in three main areas: Motivational measures from Chief officer, Other factors influencing motivation, and Organizational support for the Chief officer. A majority of the interviewees indicate that important for motivation are: The content of the work and that it feels meaningful and the cohesion of the working group. Of particular importance for the respondents are to provide employee responsibilities and to give feedback on accomplished work, create involvement for the operation onboard, as well as using objectives and results follow-up. Their behavior towards the ratings are important. Other factors that are important for the motivation include: Employment conditions, Food, Recreation Activities, Gym and Internet. The organizational support for the Chief officer has been found to be relatively weak and are also not sought after by the Chief officers to any greater extent. The factor considered most important and effective factors are clear objectives and expectations from the Master.

Worldwide, mariners use a variety of English as an International Language known as Maritime English regardless of the first language spoken by the crew or port in which they enter. English knowledge and ability is therefore critical to a mariner's livelihood at sea and is also mandated by the International Maritime Organization. The ability to understand and be understood is paramount to safety at sea. This study investigated which accents of English a subset of Chinese mariners found easy or difficult to understand. The data from 39 Chinese mariners who listened to 8 Standard Marine Communications phrases was analyzed. The phrases were spoken in English by native speakers of Japanese, Russian, Chinese, and English. The participants provided verbatim responses followed by their assessment of the speakers' intelligibility and accent. Results indicated that participant position on board the vessel had a statistically significant effect on the intelligibility rating of the phrase heard and the overall understandability assessed of the speaker's accent. Moreover, participants reported that the phrases were deck commands. For deck officers who participated in the study, the phrases were easy to understand, for engineers, they were more difficult. These findings suggest that within the field of Maritime English, further specification of English training is warranted and necessary to provide all mariners with authentic language relevant to their jobs. Initial Maritime English instruction at Maritime Education and Training (MET) institutions must include reading, writing, listening, and speaking which includes the spectrum of scenarios which all cadets may find themselves. Follow-on English classes for mariners beyond the academies or maritime universities must necessarily be situated in the context of the mariner and be flexible enough to adjust to the needs of the mariners. Finally, assessment of the mariner's Maritime English language abilities must also strive to test authentic use of the language as indicated by the position.

Les Capitulations accordées par la Porte en 1740 fixent un cadre favorable pour le commerce français au Levant. Cependant, le XVIIIe siècle est celui de sa régression. Smyrne, qui s'impose alors comme la première Échelle ottomane, offre un point d'observation idoine pour comprendre cette crise où se mêlent confusément la dégradation des changes et celle des draps, l'article le plus exporté. Pourtant, la maison marseillaise Roux établit une commandite à Smyrne en 1759 après avoir eu recours à des tiers. Grâce aux apports de la sociologie économique, notre étude montre que le contexte levantin, sujet aux révolutions de toute sorte, n'offre pas toutes les aménités escomptées. La structure sociale légalement induite, et dominée par les Marseillais, fonctionne selon une prudence encastrée qui assimile les régisseurs à des subalternes suspects d'opportunisme. Une telle organisation entrave la saisie des occasions offertes par le marché oriental. Alors que la Méditerranée devient un espace périphérique du commerce mondial, les Roux échouent à valoriser leur implantation levantine malgré l'étendue de leurs réseaux. La domination marseillaise de la draperie languedocienne contribue en fait à sa précarisation et à la baisse de sa qualité. Dès la fin de la guerre de Sept Ans, ces exportations entrent dans une phase dépressive que l'inertie des pratiques négociantes ne fait qu'entretenir. Celles-ci expliquent également l'absence de diversification. Ainsi, les défauts réticulaires se combinent à la complexité du marché levantin, aux troubles géopolitiques du XVIIIe siècle et à la transition hégémonique au profit des Anglais pour expliquer la crise du commerce marseillais levantin. / The capitulations granted by the Porte in 1740 set a favourable framework for French trade in Levant. However, the 18th century means decline for it. Smyrna, which emerged at that time as the first Ottoman échelle, offered a fitting place to observe and to understand this crisis stemming from the debasement of exchange rates and woolen clothes, the most exported articles. And yet, the Roux company from Marseilles established a firm in Smyrna in 1759 after turning to outsiders. Thanks to the contributions of economic sociology, this research shows that the Levantine context, prone to revolutions of all kinds, didn't offer all the expected amenities. The social structure legally enforced and dominated by the merchants of Marseilles worked in accordance to embedded cautiousness which likened the expatriated partners to potentially opportunist subordinates. Such an organization hampered their activity in the Eastern market. Whereas the Mediterranean became an outlying space for world trade, the Roux failed to develop their Levantine firm despite the diversity of their networks. The domination of Marseilles over the clothing industry in Languedoc contributed, in fact, to its jeopardizing and the quality decline of its products. At the end of the Seven Years' War, these exportations entered in a declining stage maintained by the inertia of the merchants' practices which also account for the lack of diversification. Thus, network defects combine with the complexity of the Levantine market, the geopolitical troubles of the 18th century and the transition to English hegemony to explain the crisis of the Levantine trade from Marseilles.

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