Negative body image can cause serious psychological problems. In some Western societies, body image concerns can develop at a young age, with early preadolescents preferring thinner bodies and reporting body dissatisfaction. The aims here were to clarify the significant gaps in published research, and to challenge existing assumptions around weight, muscularity, and body satisfaction in children. In addition, this novel research focused on young children’s body dissatisfaction, particularly young boys (aged 4-11 years). Traditional measures of body satisfaction are limited and do not incorporate muscularity, assess individual body parts, or indicate the direction of dissatisfaction. Here, new visual measures were developed along with a prototype application for a touch-screen tablet to measure body satisfaction in children. Through 4 innovative experimental studies the current research explored factors influencing body image: including gender, age, ethnicity, BMI, perceived body size, and sociocultural factors (e.g. cultural ideals and body size stereotypes). Results consistently supported the findings of study 1 which showed gender differences in body satisfaction: boys were more dissatisfied with their bodies than girls, and their dissatisfaction varied over the different body parts (torso, arms and legs). Stereotypical idealised body perception was evident: boys wanted to be muscular and girls desired to be lean. In study 2, ideal body choices saw boys choosing more muscular figures and girls more lean figures for the self, than the ones they choose for another boy or girl. Boys desired more muscular ideal figures than what they perceived the opposite sex would choose. Study 3 revealed the pattern of assigning positive attributes was gendered. Boys viewed the hypermuscular figure the most positively and girls the normal weight and lean figures the most positively. However, both sexes did not want to look like the overweight figure as a child or adult. Study 4 showed parent’s body satisfaction and their perception of their child’s current body size predicted child’s body satisfaction, and exposure to media predicted the child’s ideal and future ideal adult figure choices. Overall, a combination of factors involved in the development of children’s body image were revealed, including sociocultural influences, age, ethnicity, and perceived body size. The research carried out within this thesis has extended our knowledge of pre-adolescent’s body dissatisfaction, has developed innovative measures for use with younger children, and revealed fascinating findings around young boys’ body image.

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Huvudsyftet med föreliggande studie var att undersöka skillnader mellan crossfitutövare och traditionellt gymaktiva i muskelsträvan, träningsrelaterat instagram-användande, tvångsmässig passion och träningsmängd samt undersöka samband avseende dessa variabler. Vidare undersökte studien om exponering för tränings- och utseenderelaterade bilder, tvångsmässig passion samt ökat träningsbeteende efter exponering för bilder på instagram kan predicera muskelsträvan. Genom en kvantitativ forskningsansats fick deltagarna besvara en enkät innefattande mätinstrumenten: Godin Leisure- Time Exercise Questionnaire, The Passion Scale, Drive for muscularity scale. Utifrån ett bekvämlighetsurval rekryterades 156 deltagare (66 män och 89 kvinnor, en person uppgav inte kön) i åldern 16-65 år (M=28). Studien visar att crossfitutövare har mer muskelsträvan, träningsrelaterat instagram-användande, tvångsmässig passion samt träningsmängd jämfört med traditionellt gymaktiva. Muskelsträvan visade positiva samband med träningsrelaterat instagram-användande, tvångsmässig passion samt träningsmängd. Vidare visade studien att exponering för tränings- och utseenderelaterade bilder på Instagram, tvångsmässig passion samt ökat träningsbeteende efter exponering för bilder på Instagram kan predicera muskelsträvan. För framtida forskning föreslås att undersöka om andra grupper med stort träningsrelaterat instagram-användande också har mer muskelsträvan samt tvångsmässig passion.

Etude 1 : L’objectif de cette étude était d’étendre la littérature existante en testant un modèle tripartite à deux voies du développement de l’image du corps masculin et des préoccupations alimentaires chez des jeunes hommes français. Le modèle final présentait un bon ajustement aux données et comprenait des voies distinctes de préoccupations musculaires et de préoccupations liées à la masse graisseuse.Etude 2 : L’objectif de cette étude était d’explorer différents profils de recherche de musculature et de minceur chez des jeunes femmes françaises. Le groupe de jeunes femmes avec « recherche de musculature et de minceur » présentait des scores significativement plus élevés pour la pression des amis et du partenaire, l’intérêt pour les médias, l’internalisation de l’idéal mince et tonique, la comparaison de l’apparence, les symptômes boulimiques et un fonctionnement psychologique moins bon.Etude 3 : Le but de cette troisième étude était d’explorer un modèle socioculturel longitudinal de l’influence des médias, des pairs et du partenaire amoureux sur l’insatisfaction corporelle, la recherche de minceur, et la recherche de musculature dans un échantillon de jeunes femmes françaises. Le modèle final présentait un bon ajustement aux données et a montré que les pressions médiatiques et interpersonnelles étaient associées, par le biais de la comparaison de l’apparence, à une augmentation de l’insatisfaction corporelle, de la recherche de minceur et de musculature un an plus tard. / Study 1: The aim of the present study was to extend the extant literature by testing a modified Tripartite dual pathway model of the development of male body image and eating concerns among French young men. The revised and final model was an adequate fit to the data and included separate pathways for muscularity- and leanness-related concerns.Study 2: The aim of this study was to explore different patterns of drive for muscularity and thinness among French young women. The group of young women with “drive for muscularity and thinness” displayed the highest means of friend and partner pressures, interest in the media, thin-and-toned ideal internalization, appearance comparison, bulimic symptoms and the poorest psychological functioning.Study 3: The aim of the current study was to explore a prospective sociocultural model of the influence of media, peer, and partner pressures on body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, and drive for muscularity in a sample of French young women. The final model presented a good fit to the data, and highlighted that media and interpersonal pressures were associated over time with increased body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness and drive for muscularity one year later, via appearance comparison.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Avaliou-se o desempenho produtivo, caracterÃsticas quantitativas das carcaÃas e viabilidade econÃmica de cordeiros do grupamento genÃtico Pantaneiro terminados em quatro sistemas de produÃÃo: 1) Pastagem de Brachiaria brizantha cv piatÃ, vedada e suplementaÃÃo energÃtica proteica fornecida na proporÃÃo de 2% do peso corporal (VED); 2) Pastagem de Brachiaria brizantha cv piatà em plantio consorciado com sorgo e suplementaÃÃo energÃtica proteica fornecida na proporÃÃo de 2% do peso corporal (ILP); 3) Confinamento com suplementaÃÃo energÃtica proteica fornecida na proporÃÃo de 2% do peso corporal e silagem de sorgo fornecida na proporÃÃo de 1,5% do peso corporal (COF2); e 4) Confinamento com suplementaÃÃo energÃtica proteica fornecida na proporÃÃo de 4% do peso corporal e silagem de sorgo fornecida na proporÃÃo de 1,5% do peso corporal (COF4) Foram utilizados 100 cordeiros com peso mÃdio de 17,85  2,50 kg e 70  15 dias de idade. Adotou-se o delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com quatro sistemas de terminaÃÃo e vinte e cinco animais por sistema. Os animais foram pesados quinzenalmente para ajuste da suplementaÃÃo energÃtica proteica e do volumoso. A duraÃÃo do experimento foi determinada pelo tempo necessÃrio para que a mÃdia dos animais de um sistema acumulassem dois milÃmetros de espessura de gordura subcutÃnea. A anÃlise econÃmica foi baseada no cÃlculo da margem bruta e lÃquida, sendo os custos operacionais efetivos, operacionais totais e a receita bruta a base para a anÃlise da viabilidade econÃmica. Foram gerados cenÃrios para a avaliaÃÃo de sensibilidade da viabilidade econÃmica. Os valores mÃdios do peso vivo final e ganho de peso total dos animais terminados no ILP foram superiores quando comparados aos valores obtidos no COF2, enquanto que entre os sistemas de terminaÃÃo VED e COF4, estas caracterÃsticas nÃo diferiram (P>0,05). Os cordeiros terminados em VED, ILP e COF4 apresentaram as maiores mÃdias de peso de carcaÃa quente e carcaÃa fria quando comparados aos animais terminados no COF2. No entanto, os maiores rendimentos de carcaÃa quente e carcaÃa fria foram identificados nos animais terminados no COF4 em relaÃÃo aos demais sistemas de terminaÃÃo. Para o Ãndice de compacidade de carcaÃa, os animais terminados no COF4 obtiveram valores superiores aos observados no COF2. A avaliaÃÃo do resultado econÃmico revelou que houve retorno econÃmico para os sistemas de terminaÃÃo, com exceÃÃo do COF2, sendo a terminaÃÃo de cordeiros em integraÃÃo lavoura pecuÃria mais rentÃvel. Portanto, baseado nas condiÃÃes em que foi conduzido o estudo, e de acordo com as anÃlises e discussÃes apresentadas nesse trabalho conclui-se que: o ILP por proporcionar produÃÃo de forragem e produÃÃo de grÃos aliado à atividade pecuÃria, necessitando de menor Ãrea para terminaÃÃo de cordeiros e ganho de peso semelhante aos demais sistemas, foi o sistema com melhor resultado econÃmico, sendo indicado como opÃÃo para a terminaÃÃo de cordeiros na regiÃo Centro-Oeste do PaÃs. / The aim of this study was to evaluate the productive performance and carcasses quantitative characteristics and economic viability of lambs of the Pantaneiro genetic group in four production systems: 1) grazing B. brizantha cv Piata, sealed protein and energy supplementation supplied in a proportion of 2% body weight (SEL); 2) grazing B. brizantha cv Piata intercropped with sorghum and protein and energy supplementation supplied in a proportion of 2% body weight (CLI); 3) Confinement with protein and energy supplementation supplied in a proportion of 2% body weight and sorghum silage in the ratio of 1.5% of body weight (COF2); and 4) Confinement with protein and energy supplementation supplied in a proportion of 4% body weight and sorghum silage in the ratio of 1.5% of body weight (COF4). We used 100 lambs with 17.85  2.50 kg of body weight and 70  15 days of age. A completely randomized design was used, with four finishing systems and twenty-five animals per system. Animals were weighed fortnightly for protein and energy supplementation feed adjustment. The duration of the experiment was determined by the time required for animals to accumulate two millimeters thickness of subcutaneous fat. Economic analysis was based on the calculation of gross margin, and variable costs and gross revenues the basis of economic analysis. Experimental systems generated scenarios for assessing economic viability. Average values of final body weight and total weight gain in the animals finished under CLI were higher when compared to the values obtained in COF2, while in SEL and COF4 finish systems these characteristics did not differ (P> 0.05). Lambs finished in SEL, CLI and COF4 had the highest average of hot and cold carcass weight compared to animals finished in COF2. Nevertheless, higher yields of hot and cold carcass have been identified in animals finished in COF4. We identified significant difference (P <0.05) for carcass compactness index in animals finished in COF4 with higher values than those observed in animals finished in COF2. Evaluation of the economic results showed that there were economic return for the termination systems, except for COF2, and the termination of lambs in Crop- Livestock Integration were more profitable. Therefore, based on the conditions under which the study was conducted, and according to the analyzes and discussions presented in this work we concluded that: the CLI for providing forage and grain production combined with livestock activity, requiring smaller area for termination lambs and weight gain similar to other systems, was the system better economic results and is indicated as an option for termination of lambs in the Midwest region of the Country.

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This study investigated how social media use is related to body esteem (particularly weight satisfaction and muscularity importance) in adolescents. We conducted a 17-day Ecological Momentary Assessment study among 183 adolescents (12–17 years, 58% girls). Each adolescent reported on his/her social media use, weight satisfaction, and muscularity importance four times per day (68 assessments per participant; 6,863 completed in total). Using a person-specific, N=1 method of analysis (Dynamic Structural Equation Modeling), we found that at the between-person level, social media use is not associated with lower satisfaction with one’s weight and greater importance of looking masculine. At the within-person level, we found a significantly negative association for weight satisfaction and a significantly positive association for muscularity importance. For weight satisfaction, 76% of adolescents experienced no or very small effects as a result of SMU, 2% experienced positive effects, and 22% experienced negative effects. Regarding muscularity importance, 89% experienced no or very small effects of SMU on muscularity importance, 10% experienced positive effects, and 1% experienced negative effects. There is little evidence of gender differences in the effect of social media on body esteem in our sample.

This study is about how bodybuilders in the 1960s are produced in the Swedish media image. The purpose of the study is to clarify how the male, muscular, body and identity is portrayed in the media image. Through an analysis of how daily- and evening newspapers reported, negotiated and linguistically produced bodybuilding and its practitioners, I hope to access these representations which together can be considered to form a specific discourse about bodybuilding. The language used by journalists, columnists, muscle bodybuilding and other people represented in the material formed the analogies, dichotomies and symbols that shape bodybuilding's identity in the 1960s. I have tried to show how the creation of meaning about bodybuilding and its practitioners construct the bodybuilder’s identity during the period in question as well as what the bodybuilder represented and what value the practitioner and his activities were attributed by and also how the gender norms can be distinguished from the actual material. I have chosen to call this period the legitimation phase of bodybuilding and by this I do not mean whether bodybuilders become an authorized representative of a masculine ideal, but rather the fact that through the media image of meaning negotiation he receives specific characteristics and cultural connotations that are maintained and renegotiated through language. Through the 1960s media image the bodybuilder is neither intelligent, beautiful and he has no soul, he also has feminine attributes and a passive muscularity. On the other hand, because of the positive qualities emphasized in his defense he is also handsome, intelligent, he has a soul and he has an active male body. This is also a part of his identity.

Novelty of the research: 1. Using pure and cross breeding methods competitive genotype of Lithuanian White pig was formed. 2. Method of mixed linear model multivariate analysis was used and heritability of pig productive traits was evaluated in one farm conditions. 3. Genetic evaluation of Lithuanian White breed structure – boars’ lines and sows’ families- was performed as well as their productive traits correlations were determined for the first time in country. 4. For the first time in Lithuanian pig husbandry computerized method for determination of „muscle eye“ area was used. Practical meaning of the work: Using advantages of pure breeding and applying Large White breed „blood infusion“ was created consolidated meat genotype of Lithuanian White pig with high heritability of muscularity, which is used for genetic improvement in other Lithuanian White pig breed farms. At the moment 90 % of best BLUP method evaluated Lithuanian White pig breed boars and sows are kept in UAB „Berka“.