Industrial innovation is mostly driven by miniaturization. As a result of remarkable technological advancements in the fields of equipment, materials and production processes, transistor, the fundamental active component in conventional electronics, has shrunk in size. Semiconductor technology is unique in that all performance metrics are enhanced, while at the same time unit prices are reduced. Moore’s Law, which predicts that the number of components per chip will double every two years, was established in 1965, and the industry has been able to keep up with this prophetic prognosis since. Thermal management, on the other hand, has become a key limiting factor for current electronic circuits and is set to put a stop to Moore’s Law. Given the fact that complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) scaling is reaching fundamental limits, there are several new alternative processing devices and architectures that have been investigated for both traditional integrated circuit (IC) technologies and novel technologies, including new technologies aimed at contributing to advances in scaling progress and cost reductions in manufacturing operations in the coming decades. These factors will encourage the development of new information processing and memory systems, new technologies for integrating numerous features heterogeneously and new system architectural design layouts, among other things. Energy efficiency is advantageous from a sustainability perspective and for consumer electronics, for which fewer power-hungry components mean longer times between charges and smaller batteries. The creation of novel chip-scale tools that can aid in the transfer of information across optical frequencies and microscale photonics between nanoscale electronic devices is now a possibility. Bridging this technological gap may be achieved by plasmonics. The incorporation of plasmonic, photonic and electrical components on a single chip may lead to a number of innovative breakthroughs. Photonic integrated circuits (PICs) enable the realization of ultra-small, high-efficiency, ultra-responsive and CMOS-compatible devices that can be used in applications ranging from optical wireless communication systems (6G and beyond) and supercomputers to health and energy.   This thesis provides a platform from which to design nanoplasmonic devices while facilitating high-transmission and/or absorption efficiency, miniaturized size and the use of near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths for telecom applications. With a significant amount of Internet traffic transmitted optically, communication systems are further tightening the requirements for the development of new optical devices. Several new device structures based on the metal-insulator-metal (MIM) plasmonic waveguide are proposed and investigated using performance metrics. The transmission line theory (TLM) from microwave circuit theory and coupled mode theory (CMT) is studied and employed in the design process of the nanostructures, in particular to address the losses in plasmonic-based devices, which has been the major factor hampering their widespread usage in communication systems. By taking advantage of well-established microwave circuit theory (through new design that paves the way for mitigating these losses and enabling efficient transmission of power flow in the optical devices), we have suggested a number of high-transmission efficiency nanodevices that offer highly competitive performance compared with other platforms. As a result, a promising future for plasmonic technology, which would enable design and fabrication of multipurpose and multifunctional optical devices that are efficient in terms of losses, footprint and capability of integrating active devices, is anticipated. / Branschinnovation drivs främst av miniatyrisering. Som ett resultat av anmärkningsvärda tekniska framsteg inom områdena utrustning, material och produktionsprocesser kunde transistoren, den grundläggande aktiva komponenten i samtida elektronik, krympa i storlek. Halvledarteknik är unik genom att alla prestandamått förbättras, samtidigt som enhetspriserna sänks. Moores Lag, som förutspår att antalet komponenter per chip skulle fördubblas vartannat år, inrättades 1965, och branschen har kunnat hålla jämna steg med den profetiska prognosen sedan dess. Termisk hantering, å andra sidan, har blivit en viktig begränsande faktor för nuvarande elektroniska kretsar, och är inställd på att sätta stopp för Moores Lag. Med tanke på att CMOS-skalningen (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) når grundläggande gränser finns det flera nya alternativa bearbetningsanordningar och arkitekturer som har undersökts för både traditionell integrerad kretsteknik och ny teknik. Ny teknik som syftar till att bidra till framsteg i skalningen av framsteg och kostnadsminskningar i tillverkningsverksamheten under de kommande årtiondena. Dessa faktorer uppmuntrar utvecklingen av nya informationsbehandlings- och minnessystem, ny teknik för att integrera många funktioner heterogent och nya systemarkitekturdesignlayouter, bland annat. Energieffektivitet är fördelaktigt ur ett hållbarhetsperspektiv och för hemelektronik, där färre krafthungriga elektroniker innebär längre tid mellan laddningar och stimulerar för ett mindre energilagringssystem ombord. Skapandet av nya chip-scale verktyg som kan bidra till överföring av information över optiska frekvenser och mikroskala fotonik mellan elektroniska enheter i nanoskala är nu en möjlighet. Överbrygga denna tekniska klyfta kan uppnås av plasmonics. Införlivandet av plasmoniska, fotoniska och elektriska komponenter på ett enda chip kan leda till ett antal innovativa genombrott. Fotoniska integrerade kretsar (PIC-enheter) möjliggör förverkligande av ultrasmå, högeffektiva, ultraresponsiva och CMOS-kompatibla enheter som kan användas i applikationer som sträcker sig från optiska trådlösa kommunikationssystem (6G och därefter), superdatorer till hälso- och energiändamål. Denna avhandling ger en plattform för att designa nanoplasmoniska enheter samtidigt som den innehåller hög överförings- och eller absorptionseffektivitet, miniatyriserad storlek och vid önskade våglängder av nära infraröd (NIR) för telekomapplikationer. Med den betydande mängden Internettrafik som överförs optiskt skärper kommunikationssystemen ytterligare kraven för utveckling av nya optiska enheter. Flera nya enhetsstrukturer baserade på metall-isolator-metall (MIM) plasmonisk vågledare föreslås och numeriskt undersöks. Överföringslinjeteorin (TLM) från mikrovågskretsteori och kombinationslägesteori (CMT) studeras och används i nanostrukturerna. För att ta itu med de förluster i plasmonbaserade enheter som har varit den viktigaste parametern som hindrade deras utbredda användning i kommunikationssystem, genom att dra nytta av den väletablerade mikrovågskretsteorin (genom ny design som banar väg för att mildra förlusterna och möjliggöra effektiv överföring av kraftflödet i den optiska enheten).  Vi har framgångsrikt föreslagit ett antal nanodevices med hög överföringseffektivitet som erbjuder en mycket konkurrenskraftig prestanda jämfört med andra plattformar. Som ett resultat förväntar vi oss en lovande framtid för plasmonisk teknik som skulle möjliggöra design och tillverkning av mångsidiga och multifunktionella optiska enheter som är effektiva när det gäller förluster, fotavtryck och förmåga att integrera aktiva enheter. / <p>Vid tidpunkten för framläggandet av avhandlingen var följande delarbeten opublicerade: delarbete II inskickat, III, IV, V manuskript.</p><p>At the time of the licentiate defence the following papers were unpublished: paper II submitted, III, IV, V manuscript.</p>

I denna avhandling studeras elektromagnetisk vågutbredning i graderade materialkompositer med extraordinära egenskaper. Två sådana materialkompositsystem studeras särskilt, med hjälp av både analytiska och beräkningstekniska elektromagnetiska metoder. Det första systemet används för utvecklingen av en lovande icke-invasiv metod för cancerbehandling, som bygger på att tumören med insatta guldnanopartiklar värms upp med hjälp av mikrovågsstrålning. En vågledarstruktur föreslås bestående av ett tunt dielektriskt skikt med en kontinuerlig graderad materialövergång till dess omgivande material till vardera sidan av skiktet. Det tunna lagret består av cancervävnad med insatta guldnanopartiklar som drivs in i elektroforetisk svängning med hjälp av elektromagnetisk strålning. Analytiska lösningar för det givna vågledarproblemet erhålls, vilket möjliggör beräkning av absorptionskoefficienterna endast inom det tunna skiktet, vilket är viktigt för bedömning av genomförbarheten av den tänkta medicinska tillämpningen. De dispersiva dielektriska modellerna som beskriver de elektromagnetiska egenskaperna hos de relevanta biologiska vävnaderna föreslås och diskuteras. Numeriska simuleringar gjorda i COMSOL Multiphysics är i utmärkt överensstämmelse med och validerar de analytiska resultaten. Det andra systemet involverar vågutbredning från ett högerhänt material till ett vänsterhänt metamaterial i fri rymd. De två materialen är impedansmatchade, vilket säkerställer ingen reflektion, och det graderade gränssnittet mellan dem beskrivs av en kontinuerlig funktion. Metamaterialkompositer med rumsligt varierande materialparametrar har fått ett ökande teoretiskt och experimentellt intresse de senaste två decennierna. De är användbara för ett antal tillämpningar, såsom transformationsoptik. I denna uppsats diskuteras egenskaperna hos vänsterhänta material. Fältlösningarna till det impedansmatchade graderade gränssnittet härleds, och en numerisk modell utvecklas i COMSOL. Resultaten bekräftar de extraordinära egenskaperna hos vänsterhänta material. / In this thesis, electromagnetic wave propagation in graded material composites with extraordinary properties are studied. Two such material composite systems are studied in particular, using both analytical and computational electromagnetic methods. The first system is used for the development of a promising non-invasive method of cancer treatment based on heating the tumors with inserted gold nanoparticles by means of microwave radiation. A waveguide structure is proposed consisting of a thin dielectric layer with a continuous graded material transition to its surrounding materials to either side of the layer. The thin layer consists of cancer tissue with inserted gold nanoparticles that are driven into electrophoretic oscillation by means of electromagnetic radiation. Analytical solutions for the given waveguide problem are obtained, allowing the calculation of the absorption coefficients within the thin layer only, which is important for assessment of the feasibility of the envisioned medical application. The dispersive dielectric models describing the electromagnetic properties of the relevant biological tissues are proposed and discussed. Numerical simulations done in COMSOL Multiphysics are in excellent agreement with and validate the analytical results. The second system involves wave propagation from a right-handed material to a left-handed metamaterial in an open boundary system. The two materials are impedance-matched, thus ensuring no reflection, and the graded interface between them is described by a continuous function. Metamaterial composites with spatially varying material parameters have been given an increasing theoretical and experimental interest the last two decades. They are useful for a number of applications, such as transformation optics. In this thesis, the properties of left-handed media are discussed. The field solutions to the impedance-matched graded interface are derived, and a numerical model is developed in COMSOL. The results confirm the extraordinary properties of left-handed media. / <p>QC 20221129</p>

Ultra-thin solar cells that incorporate earth-abundant and non-toxic materials are promising candidates in the endeavor toward sustainable energy harvesting. Methods to counteract the inevitable low absorption of thinner semiconductor layers are of high interest and have raised considerable attention in the research society. In an attempt to increase the absorption of these types of assemblies, optical coupling effects between the localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPR) of disordered Au nanostructures and a Fabry-Pérot cavity were studied using a previously established absorber/spacer/reflector stack. The disordered Au array was fabricated by evaporating a thin Au film on a substrate with a 55 nm SiO2 dielectric spacer and a 100 nm Al reflecting film, followed by thermal annealing. Nominal Au film thicknesses in the range of 5-25 Å and annealing temperatures of 200-500 oC were investigated. In situ spectroscopic ellipsometry measurements during the subsequent atomic layer deposition (ALD) of tin monosulfide (SnS) allowed analysis of how the optical properties of the SnS/Au absorber layer changed as a function of the growing SnS layer thickness. By employing the Transfer Matrix Method with the estimated optical properties from the in situ analysis, the absorptance of the absorber/spacer/reflector stacks was simulated as a function of the spacer thickness, revealing any signs of the characteristic anti-crossing behavior. It was discovered that a nominal Au film thickness of 25 Å, annealed at 450 oC, and coated with a SnS film of ∼13 nm primed toward the π-phase, resulted in strong optical coupling between the cavity mode and the LSPR. The energy difference at the avoided crossing in the specular reflectance measurement gave an estimated Rabi-splitting energy of 537 meV. This corresponded to about 40% of the original LSPR energy, placing itself within the ultra-strong coupling regime. To evaluate the relevance of the thin-layered structure in photovoltaic applications, more advanced computational methods are required to estimate the useful absorption that occurs in the SnS layer. Nevertheless, these results elucidate the realization of strong optical coupling effects between disordered Au nanostructures and a Fabry-Pérot cavity, and further the possibility of using scalable fabrication methods for this type of ultra-thin absorber/spacer/reflector stack.

Nanocomposites of polyethylene and metal oxide nanoparticles have shown to be a feasible approachto the next generation of insulation in high voltage direct current cables. In order to reach an operationvoltage of 1 MV new insulation materials with reduced conductivity and increased breakdown strengthas compared to modern low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is needed.In this work polyethylene MgO nanocomposites for electrical insulation has been produced andcharacterized both from an electrical and material perspective. The MgO nanoparticles weresynthesized into polycrystalline nanoparticles with a large specific surface area (167 m2 g–1). Meltprocessing by extrusion resulted in evenly dispersed MgO nanoparticles in LDPE for the silane surfacemodified MgO as compared to the unmodified MgO. All systems showed a reduction in conductivityby up to two orders of magnitude at low loading levels (1–3 wt.%), but where the surface modifiedsystems were able to retain reduced conductivity even at loading levels of 9 wt.%. A maximuminteraction radius to influence the conductivity of the MgO nanoparticles was theoretically determinedto ca. 800 nm. The interaction radius was in turn experimentally observed around Al2O3 nanoparticlesembedded in LDPE using Intermodulation electrostatic force microscopy. By applying a voltage on theAFM-tip charge injection and extraction around the Al2O3 nanoparticles was observed, visualizing theexistence of additional localized energy states on, and around, the nanoparticles. Ptychography wasused to reveal nanometre features in 3D of electrical trees formed under DC-conditions. Thevisualization showed that the electrical tree grows by pre-step voids in front of the propagatingchannels, facilitating further growth, much in analogy to mechanical crack propagation (Griffithconcept). An electromechanical effect was attributed as possible mechanism for the formation of the voids. / Nanokompositer av polyeten och metalloxidpartiklar anses vara möjliga material att använda i morgondagens isolationshölje till högspänningskablar för likström. För att nå en transmissionsspänning på 1 MV behövs isolationsmaterial som i jämförelse med dagens polyeten har lägre elektrisk ledningsförmåga, högre styrka mot elektriskt genomslag och som kan kontrollera ansamling av rymdladdningar. De senaste årens forskning har visat att kompositer av polyeten med nanopartiklar av metalloxider har potential att nå dessa egenskaper. I det här arbetet har kompositer av polyeten och nanopartiklar av MgO för elektrisk isolation producerats och karaktäriserats. Nanopartiklar av MgO har framställts från en vattenbaserad utfällning med efterföljande calcinering, vilket resulterade i polykristallina partiklar med en mycket stor specifik ytarea (167m2 g-1). MgO-nanopartiklarna ytmodifierades i n-heptan genom att kovalent binda oktyl(trietoxi)silan och oktadekyl(trimetoxi)silan till partiklarna för att skapa en hydrofob och skyddande yta. Extrudering av de ytmodifierade MgO nanopartiklarna tillsammans med polyeten resulterade i en utmärkt dispergering med jämnt fördelad partiklar i hela kompositen, vilket ska jämföras med de omodifierade partiklarna som till stor utsträckning bildade agglomerat i polymeren. Alla kompositer med låg fyllnadsgrad (1–3 vikt% MgO) visade upp till 100 gånger lägre elektrisk konduktivitet jämfört med värdet för ofylld polyeten. Vid högre koncentrationer av omodifierade MgO förbättrades inte de isolerande egenskaperna på grund av för stor andel agglomerat, medan kompositerna med de ytmodifierade fyllmedlen som var väl dispergerade behöll en kraftig reducerad elektrisk konduktivitet upp till 9 vikt% fyllnadshalt. Den minsta interaktionsradien för MgO-nanopartiklarna för att minska den elektriska konduktiviten i kompositerna fastställdes med bildanalys och simuleringar till ca 800 nm. Den teoretiskt beräknade interaktionsradien kompletterades med observation av en experimentell interaktionsradie genom att mäta laddningsfördelningen över en Al2O3-nanopartikle i en polyetenfilm med intermodulation (frekvens-mixning) elektrostatisk kraftmikroskop (ImEFM), vilket är en ny AFM-metod för att mäta ytpotentialer. Genom att lägga på en spänning på AFM-kantilevern kunde det visualiseras hur laddningar, både injicerades och extraherades, från nanopartiklarna men inte från polyeten. Det tolkades som att extra energinivåer skapades på och runt nanopartiklarna som fungerar för att fånga in laddningar, ekvivalent med den gängse tolkningen att nanopartiklar introducera extra elektronfällor i den polymera matrisen i nanokompositer. Nanotomografi användes för att avbilda elektriska träd i tre dimensioner. Avbildningen av det elektriska trädet visade att tillväxten av trädet hade skett genom bildning av håligheter framför den framväxande trädstrukturen. Håligheterna leder till försvagning av materialet framför det propagerande trädet och förenklar på det sättet fortsatt tillväxt. Bildningen av håligheter framför trädstrukturen uppvisar en analogi till propagering av sprickor vid mekanisk belastning, i enlighet med Griffiths koncept. / <p>QC 20161006</p>

To increase the survival rate from infectious- and noncommunicable diseases, reliable diagnostic during the preliminary stages of a disease onset is of vital importance. This is not trivial to achieve, a highly sensitive and selective detection system is needed for measuring the low concentrations of biomarkers available. One possible route to achieve this is through biosensing based on plasmonic nanostructures, which during the last decade have demonstrated impressive diagnostic capabilities. These nanoplasmonic surfaces have the ability to significantly enhance fluorescence- and Raman signals through localized hotspots, where a stronger then normal electric field is present. By further utilizing a periodic sub-wavelength nanohole array the extraordinary optical transmission phenomena is supported, which open up new ways for miniaturization. In this study a nanoplasmonic chip (NPC) composed of a nanohole array —with lateral size on the order of hundreds of nanometer— covered in a thin layer of gold is created. The nanohole array is fabricated using soft nanoimprint lithography on two resists, hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) and polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). An in depth analysis of the effect of thickness is done, where the transmittance and Raman scattering (using rhodamine 6G) are measured for varying gold layers from 5 to 21 nm. The thickness was proved to be of great importance for optimizing the Raman enhancement, where a maximum was found at 13 nm. The nanohole array were also in general found beneficial for additionally enhancing the Raman signal. A transmittance minima and maxima were found in the region 200-1000 nm for the NPCs, where the minima redshifted as the thickness increased. The extraordinary transmission phenomena was however not observed at these thin gold layers. Oxygen plasma treatment further proved an effective treatment method to reduce the hydrophobic properties of the NPCs. Care needs be taken when using thin layers of gold with a PMMA base, as the PMMA structure could get severely damaged by the plasma. HPC also proved inadequate for this projects purpose, as water-based fluids easily damaged the surface despite a deposited gold layer on top.

The thesis describes the synthesis of PbS nano-, micro-structures by colloidal and hydrothermal techniques. Size and morphology dependent luminescence studies were carried out in detail. Application oriented studies like ion sensing and modulation of luminescence are carried out on colloidal PbS QDs. Photoelectrical studies are carried out on various morphologies of PbS microstructures. We observe the persistent photoconductivity, growth and quenching of photocurrent, and a few novel phenomena in flower shaped PbS microstructures. This work is presented in eight chapters inclusive of summary and directions for future work. CHAPTER 1 provides a brief introduction to optical and photoelectrical properties of semiconductor quantum dots and hydrothermal technique in preparation of quantum structures. A review of PbS nanostructures and its technological applications are discussed. CHAPTER 2 provides the experimental techniques used in this work. First, the synthesis of PbS nano-, micro-structures by various methods, and characterization tools used in this work are briefly presented. CHAPTER 3 deals with the synthesis of PbS quantum dots in poly vinyl alcohol with various precursor concentrations to identify the surface states by temperature dependent photoluminescence (PL) measurements. Average bandgap value calculated from absorption measurements was 2.1 eV. We have observed that high-energy PL bands (>1.3 eV) are due to electron traps (Pb dangling bonds) and low-energy bands (<1 eV) are due to hole traps (S dangling bonds). By capping with thiol compounds (mercaptoethanol-C2 H5OSH), absence of the 1.67 eV band indicates the passivation of Pb dangling bonds. To explain above observed results, we propose a band diagram with distributed shallow to deep states and attributed them to the specific surface related defects (Pb or S). CHAPTER 4 discusses the ion sensing applications of PbS quantum dots. We found that the sulfur related dangling bonds are quite sensitive to different metallic ions (since mercaptoethanol passivates only Pb atoms). Sulfur related PL band (~ 1 eV) have shown an order of magnitude improvement in its intensity for Hg, Ag ions and relatively low enhancement for Zn, Cd ions at 1 µmol concentrations. However Cu quenches the luminescence. An important distinction may have to be made between PbS and Cd related quantum structures. The PbS QDs can distinguish between Cu & Hg, however Cd related QDs couldn’t distinguish between these two ions. Photo-brightening and photo-darkening is an interesting phenomena indicative of photo-induced ionic migration that either helps in enhancing the emission of sulfur related defect emission or degrades the emission properties depending on the ion concentration. This report is the first of its kind in ion sensing applications using PbS QDs. CHAPTER 5 discusses the results of duel beam excitation on trap luminescence of PbS QDs. By using different lasers simultaneously (514 nm and 670 nm), we have observed the reversible luminescence quenching of trap emission. The high-energy PL band (1.67 eV) has double the quenching effect compared to low-energy PL band (1.1 eV). The luminescence quenching mechanism is attributed to the re-emission of the charge carriers from the traps (photo-ionization) due to the simultaneous excitation with the second beam. The dependence of the temperature, the effect of two beam excitation intensities and modulation frequency dependent quenching mechanism are primarily focused in this chapter. The quenching mechanism is considered to be quite useful in the optical modulation devices. CHAPTER 6 discusses the PL results on various morphologies of PbS nano-, microstructures. Interestingly, after protecting the surface with organic ligands such as mercaptoethanol (C2 H5OSH), dendrite structures have shown high-energy bands (~ 1.0 eV) in the PL spectra, which indicate the existence of various quantum confinement regimes in different branches of dendrites. The anomalous temperature dependent behavior of PL intensity is attributed to the size distribution. CHAPTER 7 discusses the results of photoconductivity measurements on various morphologies of PbS nano-, micro-structures. Flower shaped structures have shown persistent photoconductivity (PPC). This observed PPC is attributed to the presence of potential barriers, which are created by the different confinement regimes or due to the lattice relaxation, which occurs due to the carrier trapping at surfaces. In PPC, the estimated time constants of both build up and decay transients using the stretched exponentials are of the order of few tens of seconds. In PPC measurements, we observe the PC quenching below 40 K and growth above this temperature. PC quenching is attributed to the transfer of photo-excited carriers to a metastable state. The presence of metastable state is supported by the dark conductivity measurements in flower shaped structures. CHAPTER 8 presents the summary and directions for the future work.

Nanomaterials are playing an increasing role in novel technologies, and it is important to develop optical methods to characterize them in situ.  To that end, backside absorbing layer microscopy (BALM) has emerged as a powerful tool, being capable to resolve sub-nanometer height profiles, with video-rate acquisition speeds and a suitable geometry to couple live experiments.  In the internship, several techniques involving BALM were developed, and applied to study optical and electrical properties of the transition metal dichalcogenide (TMD) monolayer MoS2, a type of 2-dimensional (2D) crystalline semiconductor.  A simulations toolkit was created in MATLAB to model BALM, a workflow to reliably extract linear intensities from the CMOS detector was realized, and 2D MoS2 was synthesized by chemical vapor deposition followed by transfer to appropriate substrates.  BALM data of the 2D MoS2 was acquired and combined with simulations, giving a preliminary result for its complex refractive index at 5 optical wavelengths.  In addition, the first steps towards coupling BALM with a gate biased 2D MoS2 field-effect transistor were explored.  To complement BALM measurements, the grown samples were also characterized by conventional optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, photoluminescence spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy.  This work provides new additions to an existing platform of BALM techniques, enabling novel BALM experiments with nanomaterial systems.  In particular, it introduces a new alternative for local extraction of optical parameters and for probing of electrical charging effects, both of which are vital in the research and development of nano-optoelectronics.

Water is the source of all life, but unfortunately, the water quality is getting only worse due to many factors like overuse, contamination, indifference and even by nature itself. By identifying the problem, we are one step closer to solving the problem, and that is why an intelligent water quality device is required to examine water and detect impurities within it. In this project, we are developing a device that uses an entirely new method to measure water quality. Even though the theory behind the device is very advanced, the device is still primitive in its functions and needs development to increase the usefulness and accuracy of the measurements! / Vatten är grunden till allt liv, men tyvärr blir vattenkvaliteten bara sämre på grund av många faktorer som överanvändning, förorening, likgiltighet och till och med av naturen själv. Genom att identifiera problemet är vi ett steg närmare att lösa problemet, och detta är därför en intelligent vattenkvalitetsenhet behövs för att undersöka vattnet och hitta orenheter i det. I detta projekt utvecklar vi en apparat som använder en helt ny metod för att mäta vattenkvaliteten. Även om teorin bakom apparaten är väldigt avancerad så är apparaten fortfarande primitiv i sina funktioner och behöver utveckling för att öka användbarheten och noggrannheten i mätningarna!