This thesis deals with the available sources, organizations and form of state funerals of important political figures, which were held between the years 1948-1968. Whole thesis is divided into five separate chapters, includes also a list of sources of literature on the subject and image attachments. The first chapter deals with theoretical description of the evolution of the burial rite. The second chapter deals with the death of the personalities and its impact on the general public. The third part describes the organization of the funeral and other rituals that took place in the period between death and burial. The fourth chapter deals with its own day of the funeral, and especially the process of mourning and remembrance ceremony funeral procession. Last fifth part focuses on the development of the personality cult and other forms of worship of deceased persons. At the end of the thesis, all acquired knowledge to this issue.

This paper reviews the osteological material from birds which are found in the boat graves from Valsgärde in Sweden. Based on my own work with boat grave number 13, I have studied the avian bone material to find out what kind of bird species there are in the grave. Birds have a significant meaning in many religions from all around the world and are symbolic for different kinds of beliefs. Although many written sources from the past indicate the cultural importance of birds, there is still little zooarchaeological research done in the subject of bird findings in graves. The boat graves from Valsgärde is from the Vendel period about 550–800 AD. My interest with the species analysis is that it furthermore will lead to discussions about interpretation of the graves. I want to examine questions like what birds of certain species can tell about the individual that the grave belongs to. For example, findings of predatory birds often refer to wealth, due to fact that it’s difficult to raise them in captivity. This is an interesting fact that should be consider when a grave is examined, because it reveals many more questions. Also, I want to examine how birds at that time were used in everyday life, and if there were any other practices concerning birds like for example hunting.

Le monument funéraire a longtemps été négligé par les historiens. Comme les obituaires et les testaments, il révèle autant la relation du défunt à la mort que la gestion de sa mémoire par ses héritiers. Cette étude montre d’abord la richesse du mobilier funéraire médiéval de la Bourgogne ducale. À la diversité typologique s’ajoute la richesse de l’iconographie avec l’importance du nombre de monuments à effigies. Ces tombes matérialisent une sépulture de prestige. A l’origine réservée aux grands prélats et aux princes, l’inhumation ad ecclesiam s’étend progressivement à l’aristocratie féodale puis aux bourgeois. La localisation et la matérialisation de la sépulture par un monument reflètent aussi l’évolution de la piété médiévale. Les données épigraphiques et l’iconographie indiquent la mutation d’une piété « gothique » vers une piété plus flamboyante. Mais la volonté de transmettre une mémoire est un souci au moins aussi important que celui du salut de l’âme. Malgré une typologie complexe et une évolution formelle constante, le monument funéraire médiéval conserve une ligne directrice fondée sur la memoria du défunt. Il trahit cependant des stratégies tant sociales que sotériologiques. D’une part, il reflète son auctoritas, et par-delà, celle de son groupe social. D’autre part, il participe activement à son accomplissement spirituel. / The tombstone has long been neglected by historians. As obituaries and wills, tombstones reveal as much the relationship of the deceased to death that the management of their memory by their heirs. This study first shows the wealth of medieval Burgundy graves goods. Typological diversity adds to the richness of iconography with large amounts of effigial monuments. Tombs materialize burial of prestige. Originally reserved for prelates and princes, burial ad ecclesiam progressively extended to the feudal aristocracy and the bourgeoisie. The location and the materialization of a burial monument also reflect the evolution of medieval piety. Epigraphy and iconography show the mutation of "gothic" piety to a more flamboyant piety. But the will to transmitt a memory is a worry at least as important as the salvation of the soul. Despite a complex typology and a constantly formal evolution, the medieval tomb retains a guideline based on the memoria of the deceased. However, it reveals social as well as soteriological strategies. On the one hand, it reflects his auctoritas, and beyond that of his social group. On the other hand, it actively participates in its spiritual fulfillment.

This study critiques the extravagant behaviour associated with burial practises of modern Xhosa people, with special focus on the Eastern Cape of South Africa. It uses human altruism, cultural conformism, and cooperative behaviour as the theories to explain why people do things they consider to be the norm or do things in a prescribed way, in order to be accepted by a cultural group or class. The artworks which form part of this study are informed through interviews with key informants who are members of the community, as well as the writer’s observations during modern burial events. These artworks portray the obsessive behaviour associated with extravagant funerals, illustrated through repetition, layering, and the multiplicity of cultural objects, such as coffins, candles, pots and other items. / Art History, Visual Arts and Musicology / M. A. (Visual Arts)

This dissertation deals with the religious practices of the settlers in the central highlands of Palestine, during the pre-monarchic period (ca 1200-1000 BCE; the so-called ‘period of the Judges’), as revealed by archaeology (cultic artifacts and sites, as well as burial customs and practices). The religious practices of the settlers have been shown to reflect continuity with, and were practically indistinguishable from, those of the Late Bronze Canaanite cult, suggesting that the majority of the settlers were originally Canaanites, most probably from the coastal city-states (ie, the religious practices have been used as an ‘ethnic marker’). It has also been proposed that one of the motivating factors for the migration of people from the coastal region to the central highlands was a fairly dramatic climatic shift, one which resulted in the area becoming increasingly and significantly drier from the late 13th century BCE until about 900 BCE. / Thesis (M.A. (Biblical Archaelogy))

This dissertation examines the way in which South African colonial texts may be read for the historical signs they inadvertently reveal. The history of land acquisition in South Africa may be read through the representation of burial and illegitimate pregnancy in South African farm novels. Both burial and illegitimate pregnancy are read as signifiers of illegitimacy in the texts, surfacing, by indirection, the question of the illegitimacy of land acquisition in South Africa. The South African farm novel offers a representational form which seeks (or fails) to mediate the question of land ownership and the relationship between colon and indigene. In the four texts under discussion, Olive Schreiner's The Story of an African Farm, Florence Ethel Mills Young's The Bywonner[sic], Pauline Smith's The Beadle and Daphne Rooke's Mittee, the representation of burial and illegitimate pregnancy is problematic and marked by narrative displacements and discursive breakdowns. KEY TERMS burial, colonial discourse, farm novel, illegitimacy, illegitimate pregnancy, land, postcolonial theory, representation / English / M.A. (English)

Violence in the Desert: An Archaic Burial from the Villa del Mar-IPSS Site in IloExcavations at the Villa del Mar site, at the sea shore of the district of llo in Moquegua, Peru, exposed the remains of an extended burial of a male individual whose estimated age was between 17 to 20 years. The body was wrapped in reed mats, traces of textiles made of vegetal fibers suggest the presence of a loincloth. Conservation conditions of the bones and cultural artifacts were very poor, mainly due to the impact of the use of heavy machinery on the surface of the site. It was quite clear that the cause of death of the individual was related to the damage caused by 6 projectile points that impacted in different parts of the body. The burial pattern and the cultural remains indicate an association to the Archaic Period, specifically to the Chinchorro culture that established in this geographic area. Although the reason for this violence could be related to a sacrifice or an execution, the final disposition of the body indicates that steps were taken to follow the forms and rituals typical of the time. / Excavaciones en el sitio Villa del Mar, ubicado a orillas del mar en el distrito de llo, departamento de Moquegua, Perú, permitieron recuperar el entierro de un individuo de sexo masculino en posición extendida, cuya edad fue estimada entre los 17 a 20 años de edad. El cuerpo estuvo envuelto en esteras y restos de textiles de fibra vegetal que sugieren la presencia de un taparrabo. La conservación de los huesos y materiales culturales fue muy pobre debido al trabajo de maquinaria pesada en la superficie del sitio. Sin embargo, fue claro observar que la causa de muerte estuvo relacionada a las heridas causadas por seis puntas de proyectil que impactaron en diferentes partes del cuerpo. El patrón de enterramiento y los restos culturales corresponden al Periodo Arcaico, y específicamente a la cultura Chinchorro que se asentó en esta zona. Si bien la razón de este acto violento podría relacionarse a un sacrificio o a un ajusticiamiento, la disposición final del cuerpo indica que se siguieron las formas y ritos típicos de la época.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / This research aims to analyze human burials through the Archaeothanatological methods. We focus on studying skeleton deposition in its graves and the adornments that were buried to them. Following the methodology aforementioned, our approach to gather details from human burials is realized intending to understand its original deposition (when it's originally kept) and other elements that we may link individuals to specific artifacts buried along the graves. Each skeleton characterization and singularities, such as pathologies and other alterations, must be considered in order to profile the deceased individuals. Referring to adornments, we analyze them according to geometrical characteristics and the material they are made of, so we may know this artifact “history” in order to establish a link to the individual who it was buried together. Knowing adornments’ historical trajectory may help us to make a chronological cut, specially to the period after Europeans groups arrival. The utilization of these two kind of products ensures that the natives contacted with the foreigns, so as the incorporation of European beads in burial adornments. The approach to human skeletons and the adornments in its graves intends to how these groups lived, including ceremonial burials, so these rituals show us that the attention given to the dead reflects, in many ways, the importance of the living. / O trabalho tem por objetivo analisar os sepultamentos humanos através dos métodos propostos pela Arqueotanatologia tendo como foco o modo de deposição do esqueleto em sua sepultura, bem como, os acompanhamentos do tipo adornos a eles pertencentes de modo particular. Seguindo os métodos acima mencionados, é promovida uma abordagem dos sepultamentos humanos de forma detalhada para compreender sua deposição original (quando assim mantidos) e demais elementos que possibilitem uma correlação entre os indivíduos e os artefatos específicos depositados em suas sepulturas. A caracterização de cada esqueleto e suas particularidades como patologias e demais alterações devem ser consideradas para traçar um perfil do morto. No que se refere aos adornos, são analisados conforme suas características geométricas e o tipo de material empregado em sua confecção buscando assim conhecer a “história” deste artefato estabelecendo uma ligação entre ele e o indivíduo a que foi depositado. Compreender o tipo do artefato também pode nos possibilitar um corte cronológico no que se refere principalmente, aos objetos pertencentes ao período após a chegada de grupos europeus. O envolvimento desses dois tipos de produtos atesta o contato do nativo com o recém-chegado, e a incorporação das contas europeias nos adereços funerários. A abordagem dos esqueletos humanos e dos adornos presentes em suas sepulturas visa uma compreensão desses agrupamentos, através das ações empregadas nos ritos funerários, considerando que o cuidado com o morto, reflete em muitos aspectos o grau de importância dado ao vivo.

Les Nabatéens représentent une ancienne peuplade du nord-ouest de l’Arabie qui a connu la prospérité entre le 1er siècle av. J.-C. et le 1er siècle ap. J.-C. Pour la période et la population considérées, les pratiques funéraires sont jusqu’à présent connues essentiellement à partir de l'architecture des nécropoles et de l'épigraphie. Une analyse archéo-anthropologique de sites s’avérait indispensable et elle constitue une part importante de ce travail, introduit par un rappel des données préexistantes. Les pratiques funéraires sont appréhendées en suivant les méthodes de l’anthropologie de terrain, appliquées à deux sites jordaniens (Khirbet edh-Dharih, Pétra) et un d’Arabie Saoudite (Madâ’in Sâlih). Cette approche permet de mettre en relation les gestes funéraires avec une analyse du recrutement des inhumés et celle du matériel archéologique présent dans les tombes. Pour chaque site, une étude anthropologique incorporant divers volets (morphométrie, variations anatomiques, indicateurs de stress et autres pathologies) a été conduite afin de contribuer à la définition de l’identité biologique des groupes humains inhumés. Ce travail conduit à l’interface du biologique et du culturel. Il apporte un éclairage nouveau sur les populations nabatéennes et autorise pour la première fois à une comparaison large, à la fois inter- et intra- sites. Les trois sites retenus permettent en effet de confronter les informations issues d’un village, Dharih, à celles de deux des villes les plus importantes du royaume nabatéen, Pétra et Madâ’in Sâlih. / The Nabataeans are an ancient tribe of north-west Saudi who has known prosperity between the 1st century BC and 1st century AD. For the considered period and the population, burial practices are so far known mostly from the architecture of cemeteries and epigraphy. An archaeo-anthropological analysis of the sites was indispensable and is an important part of this work introduced by a recall of pre-existing data. The burial practices are understood by following the methods of anthropological field applied to two Jordanian sites (Khirbet edh-Dharih, Petra) and Saudi Arabia (Madâ’in Sâlih). This approach allows us to relate funerary gestures with an analysis of recruitment and the archaeological materials found in the graves. For each site, an anthropological analysis incorporating various aspects (morphometry, anatomical variations, stress indicators and other disorders) was conducted in order to define the biological identity of buried human groups. This work led to the interface of biological and cultural. It brings a new point of view on the Nabatean population and, for the first time, it allows a wide inter-sites and intra-sites comparison. The three sites selected allows to confront information from a village, Dharih , to those of two of the most important cities of the Nabatean kingdom, Petra and Mada'in Salih.

Abstract The subject of this study is ancient stone structures found in Middle and Northern Ostrobothnia. Their shape, distribution, topography and relation to the ancient shorelines of different ages are the main themes of the research. The sites are classified into different categories according to those attributes. The function and the cultural context of the stone structures are also discussed in the study. The dating of the stone structures is based solely on shoreline chronology. A model is proposed for the of social organization of Stone Age and Early Metal Age hunter-gatherer societies in Ostrobothnia. Spatial data relating to the sites was gathered both from the field and archives. The data is discussed on two levels. The cairns, dwelling sites and Giants' Churches have been studied in the larger Ostrobothnian study area. Other stone structures i.e. dwelling depressions in stone field, pits with walls and pits in stone fields, were studied in two limited research areas in Middle and Northern Ostrobothnia. The research database contains location and attribute data from 444 cairn sites with altogether 1133 cairns. There is also data from 34 Giants' Churches and 1191 other archaeological remains. The relations between the sites and ancient shorelines were analysed with GIS applications and digital elevation models. The hypothesis is put forward that the first cairn building tradition originated in the study area by 3000-2500 cal BC. This Stone Age cairn tradition is related to the middle Neolithic "Giants? Church culture". This Cairn building tradition continued most likely without chronological gaps and gave rise to the Early Metal Age cairn tradition. The large number of cairns at the 2500 cal BC shoreline zone is clearly connected to its higher number of dwelling depressions. The explanation for the increasing number of dwelling depressions and dwelling planes of the period around 3000 and 2500 cal BC is the growth of population. Giants? Churches and cairns appear around the same time. These new features and changes in the archaeological record reflect developments which took place within the hunter-gatherer societies of Ostrobothnia. This development led to more complex social structures. / Tiivistelmä Tutkimukseni aiheena ovat Keski- ja Pohjois-Pohjanmaan rannikon esihistorialliset kiinteiksi muinaisjäännöksiksi luokiteltavat kivirakennelmat. Kohteissa olevien rakennelmien muoto, sijoittuminen ympäristöön ja suhde eri muinaisrantapintoihin ovat työn keskeisiä teemoja. Kohteita ryhmitellään rakennelmien muodon, kombinaation ja topografisten piirteiden perusteella. Tarkastelussa ovat sekä rakennelmien käyttötarkoitus että kulttuurinen konteksti. Röykkiöiden ja kivirakennelmien ajoitusta hahmotellaan rannansiirtymiskronologialla. Lisäksi tutkimuksessa esitetään tulkinta tutkimusalueen kivikauden ja varhaismetallikauden yhteisöjen sosiaalisesta rakenteesta. Kohteiden paikkatiedot on koottu sekä maastokäynneillä että arkistolähteistä. Kerätyn aineiston tarkastelu tapahtuu kahdella tasolla. Röykkiöitä, asuinpaikkoja ja jätinkirkkoja tarkastellaan laajan osan Pohjanmaata kattavalla tutkimusalueella. Toinen taso on maantieteellisesti suppeampi, mutta aineistoltaan laajempi. Siinä tarkastellaan kaikkia kivirakennelmatyyppejä kahdella rajatulla tutkimusalueella Keski- ja Pohjois-Pohjanmaalla. Pohjanmaan tutkimusalueen aineisto koostuu 444:stä röykkiökohteesta, joissa on yhteensä 1133 röykkiötä. Tämän lisäksi tutkimusta varten kerättiin sijainti- ja ominaisuustiedot 34:stä jätinkirkosta ja 1191:stä muusta kiinteästä muinaisjäännöksestä. Aineiston topografisessa analyysissä tarkastellaan röykkiökohteiden sijaintikorkeutta ja sijoittumista eri muinaisrantavyöhykkeille. Kohteiden suhdetta toisiinsa ja muihin muinaisjäännöskohteisiin käsitellään lähimpään naapuruuteen perustuvassa analyysissä. Lisäksi kohteiden hierarkiaa selvitetään arvo-koko-analyysillä. Muinaisjäännöskohteiden tarkasteleminen suhteessa eri muinaisrantoihin toteutettiin GIS-paikkatietosovelluksen ja korjatun yleistetyn korkeusmallin avulla hahmottelemalla yhdeksän muinaista rantavyöhykettä. Oletuksena on, että vyöhykkeillä sijaitsevat kohteet ovat olleet merenrantasidonnaisia. Röykkiöiden rakentaminen Pohjanmaalla alkaa noin 3000-2500 eKr., ja traditio liittyy keskineoliittiseen "jättiläiskirkkokulttuuriin", kuten Aarne Europaeus vuonna 1925 kirjoittamassaan artikkelissa otaksui. Röykkiöiden määrän nousu kivikauden muinaisrantavyöhykkeillä näyttäisi liittyvän asumuspainanteiden, asuinpaikkapintojen ja jätinkirkkojen määrän nousuun. Kehityksen taustalla on rannikon metsästäjä-keräilijä-yhteisöjen sosiaalisten rakenteiden muutos. Kivikauden loppu ja varhaismetallikausi merkitsevät muutosta kohti yksinkertaisempia sosiaalisia rakenteita. Röykkiöiden rakentamisen perinne jatkui Pohjanmaalla kivikaudelta varhaismetallikaudelle, mutta rakentamisen takana ollut ideologia muuttui. Röykkiöiden määrä nousee yhdessä keittokuoppien määrän kanssa rautakauden alussa 500 eKr. tienoilla uudestaan. Mutta huippukausi jää lyhyeksi, sillä röykkiökohteiden ja muidenkin muinaisjäännösten määrät laskevat tämän jälkeen nopeasti ja lopullisesti.