Birds are a major pest in vineyards both in New Zealand and overseas. There is a need for new behavioural research on birds' foraging habits and feeding preferences in vineyards, as much of the literature to date is anecdotal. Research on cues to birds' feeding will provide a basis on which new deterrent and control strategies can be devised. Spatial-and temporal bird damage in a small vineyard block was mapped to find if damage was correlated with grape maturity and environmental factors. Vineyard and field observations of bird behaviour using video technology combined with preference experiments aimed to establish the relative roles of grape sugar concentration and colour in avian selection. Proximity of vineyards to bird roosts affects damage levels, regardless of differing maturity between locations. The rate of damage tends to increase exponentially once grape maturity has passed a threshold of 13 °Brix. Bunches positioned closest to the ground receive more damage if blackbirds or song thrushes are the predominant pests. Both sugar concentration and grape colour were found to affect birds' feeding preference, but the importance of the two factors varied between years. Black and green grape varieties were differentially preferred by blackbirds (Turdus merula) and song thrushes (Turdus philomelos) while silvereyes (Zosterops lateralis) appeared to have no strong colour preference. It was apparent that there were other, not assessed, grape factors that also affect selection. In small unprotected vineyards that are adjacent to bird roosts the entire grape crop can be taken by bird pests. Besides removing the roosts, which can be beneficial shelterbelts in regions exposed to high winds, growers currently may have no alternative other than to use exclusion netting to keep crops intact. The differential preferences between bird species for variety characteristics suggest that any new deterrents and other strategies to deflect birds from grape crops may need to be species-specific.

Organic mulches and cover crops mulched in situ were assessed for their effects on B. cinerea primary inoculum and disease levels in inflorescences at flowering and/or bunches at harvest. Organic mulches were used to enhance biological degradation of vine debris to reduce levels of B. cinerea primary inoculum the following season. Four mulch types (anaerobically and aerobically fermented marc (grape pressings), inter-row grass clippings and shredded office paper) were applied under ten-year-old Riesling vines in a ten-replicate randomized block design in New Zealand over two consecutive years. Plastic mesh bags, each containing naturally infected vine debris, were placed under vines on bare ground (control) and at the soil-mulch interface, in winter (July) 2003 and 2004. In each year, half the bags were recovered at flowering (December) and the remainder at leaf plucking (February), for assessment of B. cinerea sporulation from the vine debris and debris degradation rate. Bait lamina probes, which measure soil biological activity, were placed in the soil-mulch interface three weeks before each of the two bag-recovery dates in both years and were then removed and assessed at the same times as were the bags. All mulches led to a reduction in B. cinerea sporulation. This reduction was significantly correlated with elevated rates of vine debris decomposition and increased soil biological activity. Over both years, compared with the controls, all treatments gave a 3-20-fold reduction in B. cinerea sporulation, a 1.6-2.6-fold increase in vine debris degradation and in the two marc and the paper treatments, a 1.8-4-fold increase in activity of soil organisms. The mulches also altered vine characteristics and elevated their resistance to B. cinerea through changes to the soil environment. Functional soil biological activity, as measured by Biolog Ecoplates and bait lamina probes, was increased 2-4 times in the two marc and paper treatments, compared with the control, an effect relating to the elevated soil moisture and reduced temperature fluctuations under these mulches. Soil nutrient levels and the C:N ratios were also affected in these treatments. The mulched paper lowered vine canopy density by up to 1.4 times that of the other treatments, an effect which probably led to elevated light penetration into the canopy and consequent increased canopy temperature, photosynthesis and lowered canopy humidity. These changes to soil and vine characteristics increased grape skin strength by up to 10% in the paper treatment and sugar concentrations by 1.2-1.4 °Brix in the two marc and paper treatments. The severity of B. cinerea infections in the anaerobic marc, aerobic marc and paper treatments were reduced to 12%, 3% and 2.2% of the control, respectively, in field assessments averaged over two consecutive harvests. Cover crops mulched in situ had similar effects to those of the organic mulches, increasing soil biological activity and reducing B. cinerea primary inoculum and the severity of B. cinerea infection in grapes at harvest (2006). Inter-row phacelia and ryegrass were mulched in winter 2005 and compared with a bare ground control, under 10-year-old Chardonnay vines in a ten-replicate randomized block design. Functional soil biological activity increased by 1.5-4.5 times in the two cover crop treatments compared with the control, an effect possibly related to elevated soil moisture in these treatments. This increase in soil moisture and soil biological activity increased vine debris degradation, reduced B. cinerea primary inoculum on the debris and decreased B. cinerea severity at flowering (December 2005) and harvest (April 2006). These results show the potential of organic mulches and cover crops mulched in situ to enhance soil ecosystem services and improve the sustainability of viticultural practices.

This paper examines vineyard perceptions and adoption of climate change adaptation and water conservation measures in the Paso Robles American Viticultural Area (AVA). A survey was distributed to all 220 vineyards and vineyard management companies that operate in the AVA, with a 53.64% response rate. The objective of the survey was to determine vineyard manager and owner attitudes towards climate change and adaptation, as well as their perceptions of how these threats would impact their operation. A second objective was to document the current level of water conservation and climate adaptation while identifying the barriers and opportunities for further adoption of these practices. The third objective was to share a climate projection to assess perceived impacts, attitudes, and perceptions of the projection and capacity to adapt. The final objective was to develop a typology to assist targeted outreach of vineyards. Our results showed that the most important current climate impact is heat, with water regulations and supply being the biggest concern in the future. Vineyards were also found to be relatively unsure about their capability to further implement adaptation measures, with relatively low adoption of most practices already. Decision support tools, like the climate projection, were found to be useful and desired by vineyards for management. Results of our study showed that trust in the information source can be a barrier to use of these tools. We identified further barriers to adoption of practices and identified an outreach strategy using a typology of vineyards, which focused on smaller vineyards and those without wineries. These results can be used to increase efficacy of government and NGO programs that aim to support climate adaptation and water conservation in the region.

The Columbia Gorge Wine Region (CGWR) is an emerging wine producing area that extends for about 100km along the Columbia River in Oregon and Washington State in which the number of vineyards, wineries and physical terroir conditions have yet to be defined. To better understand the physical factors affecting Oregon and Washington wine, this project analyzes climate, topography, geology and soil at vineyards in the CGWR. This was accomplished using Geographic Information Systems, existing earth science databases and field work. The region, which includes the Columbia Gorge American Viticulture Area (AVA) and the southwest portion of the Columbia Valley AVA, is home to 82 vineyards, 513 hectares (1268 acres), 37 wineries and 41 different varieties of Vitus Vinifera. Vineyards range in elevation from 29 to 548 meters (95 to 1799 feet). Vintner responses to a grower's survey suggest that twenty-eight grape varieties account for 98% of the estimated grape variety acreage, with Pinot Noir being the most widely planted grape variety in both AVAs. The boundaries of each climatic regime were mapped based on 1981-2010 PRISM data, the Winkler Index (Amerine and Winkler, 1944) updated by Jones et al. (2010) and climatic maturity groupings designed for Oregon (Jones et al., 2002; Jones et al., 2010). Three Winkler climate regimes are represented within the CGWR, including regions Ia, Ib, and II from the Winkler Index (Jones et al., 2010). The diversity in regimes allows for a diversity of grape varieties to be planted within the regime. The average growing season temperatures and growing degree days, respectively, from 1981-2010 calculated for vineyards ranges from 13.7°C (55.7°F) to 17.7°C (63.9°F) and 871 for °C (1567 for °F) to 1664 for °C (2994 for °F) respectively. 58% of the vineyards are characterized in an intermediate climatic regime, 29% are within a cool climatic regime, 9% are within a warm climatic regime and 4% are on the boundaries between a cool, intermediate or warm regime. 80% of the vineyards are within Regions Ia and Ib characterized by the Winkler Index, and 20% are within Region II. The growing degrees days calculated for the CGWR are similar those measured in the Willamette Valley, Oregon, Burgundy, France, Umpqua Valley AVA in Oregon and Bordeaux wine region in France. All of the soils currently being used to grow grapes are well-drained and within a xeric moisture regime, which are favorable conditions for viticulture. 30 soil series are represented among the vineyard sites, with the Chemawa Series (Underwood Mountain) and Walla Walla Series (eastern portions) being the dominant soil series used to grow grapes. Majority of the soils contain a silt loam texture. Soil Survey data for Oregon and Washington suggest that loess is extensive in the CGWR, with 46.5% of the total vineyard acreage planted on soils formed in loess. The Missoula Floods also greatly influenced the texture and age of the soil in this region, with skeletal textures being close to the Columbia River. Other common geological deposits at vineyards in the CGWR include, Quaternary Basalt (19.6%), Missoula Flood deposits (9.1%), The Dalles Formation (8.0%), Columbia River Basalt Group (7.5%), Pliocene Basalt (3.0%), Quaternary Surficial deposits (3.0%), lahars (2.3%) and Quaternary Basaltic Andesite and Andesite (0.9%). Common geological deposits, soil series, and climate conditions at vineyard sites vary spatially in the region, and therefore it is suggested that future work focus on separating the region into separate climatic sub-AVA regimes to better reflect the diversity in terroir conditions.

This study delves into the intricacies of the language used in wine reviews, focusing on the adoption of standardised wine vocabularies, specifically the original Wine Aroma Wheel (Noble A. C. et al., 1984) and the Wine Lexicon of the Wine and Spirit Education Trust (WSET Level 4 Systematic Approach to Tasting Wine®, 2023). It investigates the extent to which professional wine reviewers adhere to these standard lexicons or opt for individualistic expression. An essential component of the research identifies and analyses emerging terms in wine reviews, shedding light on the evolving nature of wine discourse. The study's findings indicate that while standardised vocabularies are influential and foundational, there remains room for individualised expression in conveying the nuanced sensory experience of wine tasting. Additionally, the research highlights the importance of these emergent terms and their potential to enrich existing wine vocabularies. Given the global nature of the wine industry, the study underscores the need for a more inclusive and adaptive linguistic approach. To this end, the research suggests the potential benefits of a controlled vocabulary system tailored for the wine sector. Despite its inherent challenges, such a system could streamline wine descriptions, promoting a more consistent understanding across diverse audiences along with better communication among professionals. / Questo studio approfondisce la complessità del linguaggio utilizzato nelle recensioni di vino, focalizzando sull'adozione di linguaggi standardizzati e in particolare su "The Wine Aroma Wheel" (Noble A. C. et al., 1984) e su "The Wine Lexicon of the Wine and Spirit Education Trust" (WSET Level 4 Systematic Approach to Tasting Wine®, 2023). La ricerca intende concentrarsi nella misura in cui i recensori professionisti di vino aderiscono a questi linguaggi controllati, o preferiscono optare per un'espressione individuale. Una parte sostanziale della ricerca che identifica ed analizza i termini emergenti nelle recensioni di vino, rivela l'evoluzione del discorso sul vino. I risultati dello studio indicano che, sebbene i linguaggi standardizzati siano influenti e fondamentali, lasciano ancora spazio all'espressione personale a descrivere l'esperienza sensoriale della degustazione del vino. Inoltre, i risultati sottolineano l'importanza dei termini emergenti e la loro potenzialità di arricchire i linguaggi inerenti al discorso di vino. Considerando la visione olistica dell'industria vinicola, questo studio mette in rilievo la necessità di un approccio linguistico più inclusivo e flessibile. In tal senso, si propongono i benefici impliciti di un sistema di linguaggio controllato su misura per il settore vinicolo. Nonostante le complessità che possano insorgere, un sistema di questo tipo potrebbe semplificare la descrizione del vino, promuovendo sia l'intesa reciproca tra gruppi di persone diversi, che una migliore comunicazione tra i professionisti nel mondo del vino.

In this study, buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) and alyssum (Lobularia maritima (L.)) flowers were used to examine the effect of floral resources on the efficacy of the leafroller parasitoid Dolichogenidea tasmanica (Cameron) in vineyards. This was done by assessing the influence of these flowers on parasitoid abundance and parasitism rate, and by investigating the consequences of this for leafroller abundance. In laboratory experiments, alyssum flowers were used to investigate the effect of floral food on the longevity, fecundity and sex ratio of D. tasmanica. Dolichogenidea tasmanica comprised more than 95 % of parasitoids reared from field collected leafrollers in this study. The abundance of D. tasmanica during the 1999-2000 growing season was very low compared with previous studies, possibly due to the very low abundance of its leafroller hosts during the experiment. The number of males of this species on yellow sticky traps was increased (although not significantly) when buckwheat flowers were planted in a Marlborough vineyard; however, the number of female D. tasmanica on traps was no greater with flowers than without. The abundance of another leafroller parasitoid, Glyptapanteles demeter (Wilkinson)(Hymenoptera: Braconidae), on traps was also not significantly affected by the presence of buckwheat flowers, although females of this species were caught in greater numbers in the control than in buckwheat plots. Naturally-occurring leafrollers were collected from three vineyard sites in Marlborough, and one in Canterbury during the 2000-2001 season to assess the effect of buckwheat and alyssum flowers on parasitism rate. Parasitism rate more than doubled in the presence of buckwheat at one of the Marlborough vineyards, but alyssum had no effect on parasitism rate in Canterbury. A leafroller release/recover method, used when naturally-occurring leafrollers were too scarce to collect, was unable to detect any effect of buckwheat or alyssum on parasitism rate. Mean parasitism rates of approximately 20 % were common in Marlborough, although rates ranged from 0 % to 45 % across the three vineyard sites in that region. In Canterbury in April, mean parasitism rates were approximately 40 % (Chapter 4). Rates were higher on upper canopy leaves (40-60 %) compared with lower canopy leaves and bunches (0-25 %). Leafroller abundance was apparently not affected by the presence of buckwheat in Marlborough, or alyssum in Canterbury. Buckwheat did, however, significantly reduce the amount of leafroller evidence (webbed leafroller feeding sites on leaves or in bunches) in Marlborough, suggesting that the presence of these flowers may reduce leafroller populations. Leafrollers infested less than 0.1 % of Cabernet Sauvignon leaves throughout the 1999-2000 growing season, but increased in abundance in bunches to infest a maximum of 0.5 % of bunches in late March in Marlborough. In Pinot Noir vines in the 2000-2001 season, leafroller abundance was also low, although sampling was not conducted late in the season when abundance reaches a peak. In Riesling vines in Canterbury, between 1.5 % and 2.5 % of bunches were infested with leafrollers in April. In the laboratory, alyssum flowers significantly increased the longevity and lifetime fecundity of D. tasmanica compared with a no-flower treatment. However, daily fecundity was not increased by the availability of food, suggesting that the greater lifetime fecundity was related to increases in longevity. Parasitoids were also able to obtain nutrients from whitefly honeydew, which resulted in similar longevity and daily fecundity to those when alyssum flowers were present. The availability of food had a significant effect on the offspring sex ratio of D. tasmanica. Parasitoids reared from naturally-occurring leafrollers produced an equal sex ratio, assumed to be the evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS) for this species. In the laboratory, this ESS was observed only when parasitoids had access to alyssum flowers. Without food, or with honeydew only, sex ratios were strongly male-biased. In the field, floral resources affected the sex ratio of D. tasmanica only when this species was reared from leafrollers released and recovered in Marlborough. In that experiment, buckwheat shifted the sex ratio in favour of female production from the equal sex ratio found in control plots. No firm explanations can be given to account for these results, due to a lack of research in this area. Possible mechanisms for the changes in sex ratio with flowers are discussed. This study demonstrated that flowers are an important source of nutrients for D. tasmanica, influencing the longevity, fecundity and offspring sex ratio of this species. However, only some of the field experiments were able to show any positive effect of the provision of floral resources on parasitoid abundance or parasitism rate. More information is needed on the role these parasitoids, and other natural enemies, play in regulating leafroller populations in New Zealand vineyards, and on how they use floral resources in the field, before recommendations can be made regarding the adoption of this technology by growers.