The aim of this dissertation is to examine selective exposure theory on Twitter among student users at Kuwait University, and to revisit selective exposure theory’s assumptions in the social media era. Two studies for this dissertation have been conducted among a total of 1391 participants to examine the selective exposure theory among student Twitter users. In both studies, the researcher conducted an online experiment by developing simulated Twitter interface pages and a simulated news app to study selective exposure theory among Kuwait University students. The first study aimed to examine whether the students at Kuwait University tend to be exposed to politicians in Kuwait’s parliament who share the same political ideologies. The second study aimed to examine to what extent student users selectively expose themselves to specific content on Twitter, or more specifically to their like-minded group, and what drives them to do so. Moreover, the effect of Twitter’s social endorsement features on users' news selection has been examined. Each study sample has been drawn from different classes of students at Kuwait University. This study also looked at the role of incidental exposure as a means of encouraging cross-ideological exposure. One noticeable trend in the two experiments conducted for this dissertation is that partisan selective exposure was clear among students participating in both studies, but at different levels. Also, data showed that there was no clear role for the social endorsements on Twitter among students in this experiment to reduce selectivity. Moreover, a person's political leaning is more likely to surpass the impact of the social endorsements when users are browsing Twitter on a daily basis. Results showed that students in the second study read tweets from accounts they did not follow in real life and they asserted that they experienced that on a high basis. Implications of these two online experiment studies are discussed.

Eye tracking is an increasingly more popular research method in software engineering and can be used to study how programmers process and comprehend source code. This study investigated the possibility to perform such studies remotely with the use of eye-tracking algorithms and consumer grade webcams. A practical experiment was set up to remotely gather gaze-data from programmers. Several processing steps were applied to the gaze-data to establish the adequacy of the procedure. Two main problems with the webcam eye-tracking technology were found. The first was the lack of a fixation detection algorithm developed specifically for low frequency webcam data. This makes isolation of eye-movements more difficult and the results possibly unreliable. The second was the lack of support for dealing with head movements when predicting the gaze-position. Online experiments are unsupervised and there is no guarantee a subject will keep their head still even if instructed to do so. This was thought to be the reason behind spatial shifts observed within the collected datasets. Positive trends in the data were also identified. Like the consistent dispersions of gaze-points, and certain recognisable reading trends. While deemed unsuited for the task. Ultimately, the positive trends provided optimism for the technology to be usable to study code reading in the future.

This doctoral thesis consists of three essays within the field of human technology interaction examined through the lens of behavioural and experimental economics. The three essays in this thesis represent three strands helping to reveal the issue of human-machine interaction from different angles. The first essay contributes to human-machine relations by addressing the problem associated with the problem of an individual experiencing a relative lack of resources that affects human judgment and decision-making in the financial domain. This chapter discusses how policy can leverage emerging technologies to design specific choice architecture that may support more risk-aware decision-making of vulnerable socioeconomic groups. Furthermore, it discusses how behavioural policy initiatives aimed at helping resource-deprived individuals conduct more optimal financial decision making might be effectively assisted by recent Artificial Intelligence (AI) developments and the associated ethical considerations. The primary focus of the second essay relates to individual decision making in a risky environment with algorithm help. By conducting an online experiment, it investigates how humans cognitively offload tasks to algorithms in a risky environment with different time constraints. Results demonstrate that the presence of an AI assistant is beneficial for decision making only when its accuracy is high. The third essay continues the investigation of human-technology inter- actions. The primary attention is paid to how information about the result of the action taken by a human affects the incentive behaviour, depending on the interacting partner. The main focus concerns how the information about the result (out- come) of the investment affects the reward and punishment behaviour of the participants that interact with Human and Algorithm agents. Specifically, I conduct an experiment investigating the interaction between out- come bias and human/algorithm responsibility.

This study attempted to identify ways to improve voluntary compliance and minimize taxpayer burden, but also tries to understand the behavior of taxpayers’ compliance given the compliance regimen. Most explicitly, it attempted to identify ways to improve payment compliance using regimens already utilized in other parts of the tax code. The research question was whether different tax regimes, such as safe harbor, can change the behavior of employment tax payment for small business or self-employed taxpayers. The idea was to determine if a safe harbor provision can reduce the proclivity of authorized individuals to implement a payroll tax dilemma strategy and whether or regimen can reduce payment noncompliance in time of economic distress. To answer the research question, an online experiment was employed. The experimental design was an impact study. The population of interest in this study was all authorized individuals from small and self-employed firms. The sample size totaled 205, and it was based on the a-priori sample size calculation. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was chosen as the data analysis technique, but other nonparametric test and logistic regression models were used to further analyze the data. This study showed that for subjects who did not subscribed to safe harbor provision but experienced an increased probability of apprehension increased their payment compliance. Also, the availability of a safe harbor provision lead to a large numbers to a safe harbor provision subscription in order to avoid enforcement. This study was able to show that individuals were willing to improve their payment compliance rate when enforcement was increased. The General Deterrence Theory explains that increased deterrence will lead to higher compliance. The study showed a 10 percent improvement in payment compliance when safe harbor was implemented. The results from this study also suggest that provisions such as a safe harbor can be a method of reducing filing costs and audit costs and ultimately taxpayer burden. On the other hand, the results of this study were inconclusive in determining if such provisions can improve payment compliance. Nevertheless, the outcome of this study can improve timing and accuracy of employment taxes payments and it may improve the accuracy of employment tax payment.

El enfoque experimental es el corazón de algunos de los desarrollos más interesantes de la economía. Básicamente, los experimentos se utilizan para generar datos controlados. El término "datos controlados" se refiere al hecho de que la mayoría de los factores en los que influyen las conductas se mantienen constantes, y solo un factor de interés (el "tratamiento'') cambia a la vez. Este es el punto crítico para hacer una inferencia causal. A veces, este proceso de generación ocurre de forma natural (es decir, un "experimento natural''). Sin embargo, la mayoría de las veces, el investigador es el encargado de desarrollar y controlar el proceso de generación. Todas las áreas de la ciencia (incluida la economía) deben considerar todas las metodologías que se pueden aplicar. La teoría, los experimentos de laboratorio, los experimentos de campo, los experimentos online, la neuroeconomía, la investigación observacional y social, las encuestas y más, contribuyen a nuestra comprensión del mundo. En el primer capítulo de a tesis, se presentan resultados experimentales sobre subastas. Se consideran dos tratamientos experimentales: si el comprador prefiere más la calidad a la dimensión del precio, o si este último importa más que la calidad. Los participantes se asignan al azar a uno de estos dos tratamientos y se emparejan en grupos de cinco. Juegan una subasta de períodos múltiples, donde la calidad es exógena asignada en cada ronda y los sujetos presentan una rebaja al precio base anunciado. Las pujas se transforman en puntuaciones que combinan la calidad exógena y la rebaja. El vendedor con la puntuación más alta gana la subasta. Los resultados sugieren que, cuando el peso de la rebaja es mayor, los participantes pujan más cerca del equilibrio. Sin embargo, la probabilidad de obtener un resultado eficiente es mayor cuando se pone más peso en la calidad. En el segundo capítulo analizo los resultados de un experimento en línea en el que los sujetos juegan cuatro versiones del juego Stag-Hunt. Hay tres tratamientos: línea de base, retraso de tiempo y retraso motivado. En el segundo, los sujetos deben esperar 40 segundos antes de elegir una decisión. En el tercero, deben esperar 40 segundos y escribir un texto para motivar sus decisiones. Al final del juego, los participantes informan sobre creencias, preferencias de riesgo y una medida de confianza. El resultado principal es que los sujetos optan por colaborar menos cuando deliberan más. La explicación es que este tratamiento ayuda a los sujetos a comprender que esta es la opción más segura. En el tercer capítulo, los autores estiman el impacto de un programa educativo basado en juegos destinado a promover el uso sostenible del agua. Esto se hizo en la ciudad de Lucca, con miles de alumnos de 2º a 4º de primaria. Los hallazgos indican que los estudiantes del grupo de tratamiento (participantes del programa) mostraron una mayor conciencia sobre el consumo de agua respecto a aquellos estudiantes que no participaron en el programa. Además, encuentran que el efecto positivo aún se observa después de seis meses, lo que sugiere que los programas educativos basados en juegos pueden ser un instrumento eficaz para promover comportamientos prosociales en el consumo de agua.

網路「線上促銷」，以鼓動線上購買，或是提供給網路使用者各式各樣優惠的誘因贈獎訊息來吸引點選，在網路行銷及廣告的運用上，越來越頻繁。而根據網友點選廣告意願的調查，指出約有57-65%的網路使用者願意點選「贈獎、誘因式」的廣告；而包括最吸引網友點選的廣告訊息，以「優惠折扣」居首，佔69%。 誘因贈獎的風行，使得網友上網就往好康去，而有「免費（FREE）」字樣的廣告的點選率也的確算是一枝獨秀。但也有人質疑，這種以「誘因」與「贈獎」做為廣告訴求，是否會使得網路廣告效果落入誘因與贈獎的陷阱中，而無實質的廣告傳播效益？ 因此本研究將以網路橫幅廣告為研究主體，探討利用誘因、贈獎做為主要廣告訴求，從MOA的概念出發，探討該類型網路廣告效果，其中包含討混有告效果研究，涵括目標對象、對廣告整體一般態度、誘因線索與主產品的互補程度等概念。 又因為網路環境與網路行為的多變，使得網路理論的驗證與現象的觀察無法分割，本研究將以線上實驗的設計方法，除了驗證變項之間的因果關係之外，亦詳加記錄了線上實驗法過程中，可能發生的問題點，提供未來相關網路研究、實驗的參考。

Die Dissertation befasst sich mit den Folgen negativer kritischer Ereignisse und gibt Hinweise, was Manager vor und nach dem Ereignis tun könnten, um potentiell negative Effekte zu minimieren. Während sich die ersten zwei Aufsätze mit der Wirkung kritischer Ereignisse aus Sicht der Konsumenten befassen, widmen sich die Aufsätze 3 und 4 der Shareholder-Perspektive. Aufsatz 1 untersucht die Wahrnehmungsveränderungen in Folge verschiedener Ereignisse mit Hilfe des Konzepts der Markenpersönlichkeit. Die Ergebnisse des Online-Experimentes implizieren, dass die negative Wirkung von der Markenstärke, der Geschäftsbeziehung vor bzw. während des Vorfalls und der Art des Ereignisses abhängt. Aufsatz 2 analysiert, ob die Effekte auch mit Hilfe des Konzepts des kundenbasierten Markenwerts bestätigt und erweitert werden können. Zu diesem Zweck werden die Reaktionen nach Bekanntwerden derselben kritischen Ereignisse für die Markenwertdimension „Perceived quality“, „Perceived value“, „Brand personality“, „Organizational associations“, und „Loyalty“ quantifiziert. In Übereinstimmung mit den in Aufsatz 1 gewonnenen Erkenntnissen deuten die Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass sowohl ein hoher Markenwert und das anhaltende persönliche Produkterlebnis während eines kritischen Ereignisses den negativen Effekt mindert, als auch eine zwischen tatsächlichen und potentiellen Kunden differenzierende Kommunikationsstrategie im Nachgang sinnvoll sein könnte. Die Aufsätze 3 und 4 untersuchen auf Basis einer „Event study“ den Zusammenhang zwischen der Veröffentlichung von „Corporate Reputation-Rankings“ des Manager Magazins und dem Shareholder Value. Die gefundenen Ankündigungseffekte weisen darauf hin, dass, über die gezeigte Verbindung zwischen Reputation und Shareholder Value, die in Folge kritischer negativer Ereignisse resultierende Reputationsänderung durch Investoren berücksichtigt wird. / The doctoral dissertation analyzes effects of negative critical incidents and points out, what manager could do before and after an incident in order to minimize possible negative impacts. While the first two essays take a closer look at effects of critical incidents from the consumer’s point of view, the essays 3 and 4 deal with the shareholder perspective. Essay 1 examines perceptional changes in consequence of various incidents using the concept of brand personality. The results of the online experiment imply that the negative impact depends on brand strength, type of event and business relation before respectively during the incident. Essay 2 analyzes whether or not effects can be confirmed and extended using the concept of customer based brand equity. For this purpose, reactions of respondents are measured after getting exposed to the same critical incidents as in the previous essay. The reactions are quantified for brand equity dimensions such as perceived quality, perceived value, brand personality, organizational associations and loyalty. The results are in line with findings of Essay 1. They indicate, on the one hand, that high brand equity and persistent product experience during crisis reduce negative effects and, on the other hand, that a communication strategy which differs between actual and potential customers could be favorable after the incident. Using event study methodology, the Essays 3 and 4 examine the linkage between publications of corporate reputation rankings of the Manager Magazin and shareholder value. The existence of negative announcement effects indicates that investors consider a reputational loss in consequence of negative critical incidents via the observed linkage between reputation and share prices.