[ES] En la presente tesis doctoral se ha estudiado la degradación de diferentes mezclas de contaminantes mediante el proceso de oxidación avanzada foto-Fenton solar, buscando alternativas que lo hagan más eficiente a un pH próximo a la neutralidad. Este proceso oxidativo se ha llevado a cabo a pH 5 mediante la adición de sustancias tipo húmicas (STH) extraídas de diferentes residuos orgánicos. Las STH se han extraído del residuo de la producción del aceite de oliva, del residuo del café y de lodos de depuradora deshidratados del reactor anaerobio de EDAR. Estas STH se han caracterizado por diferentes técnicas analíticas y se han adicionado al proceso foto-Fenton para comprobar su eficacia y eficiencia en el mismo. En el caso del uso de las STH provenientes del residuo de la oliva se han obtenido diferentes tiempos de fermentación y diferentes tamaños de fracciones. El estudio sobre STH preparadas sobre residuos con diferentes tiempos de fermentación, demuestra que los mejores resultados de degradación se obtienen con las muestras fermentada un mes, pero en cualquier caso no son significativas las diferencias, por lo que no sería necesario someter al residuo a ningún tiempo de fermentación previo a la extracción de las STH. En los ensayos con diferentes fracciones de STH, se determina que no es necesario el proceso de separación por membranas ya que las degradaciones obtenidas son muy similares, independientemente del uso de una u otra. Se ha probado su eficiencia en diferentes matrices de agua y se ha comprobado su capacidad para complejar el hierro manteniéndolo en disolución, obteniendo buenos resultados en todos los casos. Se han realizado ensayos de toxicidad sobre diferentes organismos para comprobar la detoxificación de las muestras tratadas. Los ensayos de toxicidad determinan que el compuesto clorfenvinfos es el más tóxico y que las muestras en presencia de las STH son más tóxicas antes de aplicar ningún tratamiento, debido a la capacidad surfactante de las mismas. El tratamiento de una mezcla de parabenos con STH de diferente procedencia, mejora los resultados de degradación de contaminantes cuando el proceso se aplica a pH próximo a la neutralidad. Se determina que las STH extraídas del café aplicadas con una cantidad extra de peróxido de hidrógeno (doble de la estequiométrica) proporcionan mejores resultados de degradación de contaminantes que las STH obtenidas de la oliva y del lodo de depuradora. De los ensayos toxicológicos realizados y del de disrupción endocrina, se concluye que el tratamiento durante un t30w de 30 minutos, pese a que consigue la degradación de los parabenos, no resulta suficiente para detoxificar las muestras, ya que las disoluciones finales presentan mayor toxicidad que las intermedias, por lo que se considera prolongar los tratamientos. Las STH extraídas del lodo de depuradora se han utilizado para el lavado de contaminantes cuando se quiere aumentar su concentración y tratar menores volumenes con mayor concentración. Se han acoplado procesos de membrana y procesos oxidativos. Se comprueba que las STH son capaces de atrapar el contaminante por la formación de micelas, impidiendo su paso por la membrana y facilitando el posterior tratamiento por proceso foto-Fenton del retentado obtenido. El análisis realizado por PARAFAC determina que existe una interacción entre las STH y el contaminante. Por otro lado, se ha comprobado la capacidad de generar especies reactivas por parte de las STH en presencia de Fe(II) y Fe(III) obteniéndose una velocidad de reacción más lenta, aunque más estable a lo largo del tiempo con el uso del Fe(III). Las STH extraídas de diferentes residuos han resultado eficientes para la degradación de contaminantes emergentes cuando se lleva el proceso foto-Fenton a pH 5 debido a su capacidad por un lado de complejar el hierro manteniéndolo en disolución y por otro a la capacidad de generar especies reactivas durante el proceso. / [CA] En la present tesi doctoral s'ha estudiat la degradació de diferents mescles de contaminants mitjançant el procés d'oxidació avançada foto-Fenton solar, buscant alternatives que ho facen més eficient a un pH pròxim a la neutralitat. Aquest procés oxidatiu s'ha dut a terme a pH 5 mitjançant l'addició de substàncies tipus húmiques (STH) extragudes de diferents tipus de residus orgànics. Les STH s'han extret del residu de la producció de l'oli d'oliva, del residu del café i de lodes de depuradora deshidratats del reactor anaerobi d'EDAR. S¿han caracteritzat per diferents tècniques analítiques i s'han addicionat al procés foto-Fenton per a comprovar la seua eficàcia i eficiència en el mateix. En el cas de les STH provinents del residu de l'oliva s'han obtingut diferents temps de fermentació i diferents tamanys de fraccions. En l'ús de diferents temps de fermentació millors resultats de degradació s'observen en el cas de la mostra fermentada un mes, però, en qualsevol cas no son significatives les diferències, per el que no és necesari sotmetre al residu a cap temps de fermentació abans de l'extracció. Respecte al assatjos en els diferents tamanys de fraccions es determina que no es necessari la separació per membranes, ja que, les degradacions obtenides son molt similars independentment de l'ús d'una fracció o altra. S'ha comprovat l'efectivitat en diferents matrius d'aigua i la capacitat de les mateixes per a complexar el ferro mantenint-lo en disolució, en bons resultats en tots els casos estudiats. Complementàriament s'han realitzat assajos de toxicitat sobre diferents organismes per tal de comprovar la detoxificació de les mostres tractades. Els assatjos de toxicitat determinen que el compost clorfenvinfos és el més tòxic i que les mostres en presència de les STH són més tòxiques, a causa de la capacitat surfactant d'aquestes. El tractament d'una mescla de parabens en STH de diferent procedència milloren els resultats de degradació de contaminants quan es porta el procés a pH pròxim a la neutralitat. Es determina que les STH extragudes del residu del café quan s'adiciona al procés una quantitat extra de peròxid de hidrògen (doble de la quantitat estequiomètrica) milloren els resultats de degradació de contaminnats comparant en les STH obtingudes de l'oliva i del lodes de depuradora. Dels assatjos toxicològics realitzats i del de disrupció endocrina, es conclou que el tractamnet en una duració de t30w 30 minuts no és suficient per a detoxificar les mostres encara que, la degradació dels parabens es consegueix. Per lo que es considera prolongar el temps de tractament. Les STH procedents del lodes de depuradora s'han utilitzat per al llavat de contaminants quan es troben a concentracions elevades. S'han acoplat processos de membrana i procesos oxidatius. Es comproba que les STH poden atrapar contaminnats per la formació de micel-les, bloquejant el pas del contaminant a través de la membrana i sent més fàcil el posterior tractament per foto-Fenton del retentat obtingut. L'anàlisi realitzat per PARAFAC determina que existeix una interacció entre les STH i el contaminant. D'altra banda, s'ha estudiat el mecanisme de reacció de les STH i la seua capacitat per a generar espècies reactives en presència de Fe(II) i Fe(III), obtinguen una reacció més lenta encara que més estable al llarg del temps en el Fe(III). Les STH extragudes de diferents residus han resultat eficients per a la degradció de contaminants emergents quan es porta el procés foto-Fenton a pH 5 a causa de la seua capacitat per un costat de complexar el ferro mantenint-lo en dissolució i d'altra banda per la seua capacitat de genera espècies reactives durant el procés. / [EN] In the present doctoral thesis, degradation of different pollutant mixtures using the advanced oxidation process called photo-Fenton has been studied, gaining further insight in how this process would take place at circumneutral pHs. Photo-Fenton was carried out at pH 5 by adding humic like substances (HLS) isolated from different organic residues. HLS have been isolated from olive mill wastes, coffee wastes and from wastewater treatment plant sludges. These HLS have been characterized by different analytical techniques and were added to photo-Fenton process to determine their efficacy and efficiency. In the use of HLS isolated from olive mill wastes, different fermentation times and different sizes were obtained. For the HLS from different fermentation times slightly better degradation results were obtained with one month fermentation time, however differences were insignificant to take it into account, and the conclusion of no need of residue fermentation was achieved. In the use of different sizes, the pollutant degradation kinetics were practically the same, concluding that the best option is to use a mixture of them all. Iron complexing ability were studied using different water matrixes with good results in all cases. Toxicity bioassays were carried out using different organisms to know which level of detoxification has achieved. Concluding that these HLS were able to act as iron complexing agents, and that chlorfenvinphos is the most toxic compound, and that water samples containing HLS seems to be more toxic at the end of the treatment time due to their surfactant capacity. A mixture of parabens was treated using different origin HLS at mild photo-Fenton process. HLS isolated from coffee were the most efficient when and extra amount of hydrogen peroxide were added (stoichiometric doble amount). The conclusion reached from toxicology bioassays and endocrine disruption is that the treatment time t30w 30 minutes is not enough to eliminated toxicity, even when the parabens removal was obtained. HLS from sludges were used for contaminant washing when pollutant concentration is high, fitting together membrane system and oxidative process. HLS formed micelles and can catch the pollutant inside, blocking the pass through the membrane. Thus, less volume is treated then by photo-Fenton making easier the process. PARAFAC analysis shows that exist an interaction between HLS and the pollutant. Finally, mechanism reaction between HLS with Fe(II) and Fe(III) and their capacity of generate reactive species were studies. Obtaining that in presence of Fe(III) the reaction is slower but the complex is most stable. HLS isolated from different residue types are useful when photo-Fenton process takes place at circumneutral conditions due to their ability to complex iron, remaining it in solution, and their ability to generate reactive species during the process. Is possible to eliminate emerging pollutants present in wastewaters by photo-Fenton process at mild pH conditions by adding these substances, adding value to the process, and promoting circular economy. / Quiero agradecer al Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad la concesión de la beca FPI asociada a un proyecto del Plan Nacional de I+D+i (BES- 2016-077962) “Tecnologías eficientes para la eliminación de contaminantes de preocupación emergente, contenidos en Directiva 2013/39/CE o de riesgo significativo según Directiva 2008/105/CE” dentro del que se engloba el trabajo realizado en la presente tesis doctoral. Así como a la Unión Europea por la financiación para la realización de las estancias internacionales. / García Negueroles, P. (2021). Empleo de sustancias tipo húmicas obtenidas a partir de diferentes residuos orgánicos en la eliminación de contaminantes emergentes [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/177595 / TESIS

Occurrence of organic micropollutants (OMPs) in aquatic environment is a worldwide concern. A long list of anthropogenic substances, including pharmaceuticals, hormones, etc., are frequently detected in natural water sources. Wastewater treatment plants are one main source of OMPs pollution, but also a key step to control OMPs dissemination into the environment. This dissertation focuses on the evaluation of Membrane Aerated Biofilm Reactor (MABR) as a sustainable process to treat wastewater polluted by OMPs. Furthermore, application of high intensity pulsed light is proposed as an innovative tertiary treatment to produce reclaimed water of high quality. In Chapter 1, a literature review was performed to investigate the occurrence and toxicity of 12 selected organic micropollutants (OMPs) in surface and ground water and the limitations of current available biological processes. Among these technologies, systems with enriched nitrifying activity were able to enhance the removal of specific OMPs through cometabolic activities. Thus, I proposed the use of a MABR with enriched nitrifying biomass to treat OMP polluted water. In Chapter 2, I studied the influence of biofilm thickness on the removal of 13 OMPs via MABR. Results demonstrated OMP removal was dependent on biofilm thickness and bacterial cell density. MABR demonstrated important efficiencies in the removal of ammonium, COD, acetaminophen and triclosan at early stages of biofilm thickness. However, the removal of nonpolar, hydrophobic 4 OMPs and anionic, acidic OMPs required thicker biofilms, achieving maximum removal at biofilm with 1.02 mm thickness and 2.2 × 106 cell mL-1. In Chapter 3, the contribution of sorption and biodegradation in the removal of OMPs via MABR was evaluated. At three stages of biofilm thickness studied, biodegradation dominated the removal for most OMPs. Heterotrophs played an important role in OMP biodegradation at all biofilm thickness, while autotrophic nitrifiers enhanced their contribution at thickness beyond 0.58 mm. Increased removal of pollutants like estrone and ethinyl estradiol were linked to the MABR enrichment with nitrifying bacteria. Sorption was essential for the removal of lipophilic and recalcitrant pollutants like triclosan. Finally, to provide high quality treated water for reuse, Chapter 4 explores the use of high-intensity pulsed light (HIPL) as post-treatment. The number of pulses and optical energy dose have a significant impact on the OMPs removal. HIPL demonstrated fast kinetics and efficient photodegradation – with significant OMPs removal within milliseconds. The findings from my Ph.D. dissertation indicate that MABR combined with high-intensity pulse light may be an effective treatment train for the efficient removal OMPs present in municipal wastewaters. This combined treatment process could potentially pave the way to produce high quality reclaimed water for various reuse purposes.

[pt] A crescente contaminação das águas por atividades industriais é um dos maiores problemas da sociedade moderna, pois a água é essencial para a vida e para as atividades domésticas, agrícolas e industriais. Entre os principais poluentes orgânicos encontrados em efluentes aquosos, podemos citar o fenol e seus derivados. Estes compostos são tóxicos ao homem e as espécies aquáticas, mesmo em baixas concentrações e são gerados em quantidades consideráveis em efluentes da indústria siderúrgica, de petróleo, de resinas, papel e celulose entre outras. Este trabalho teve como objetivo geral investigar, dentro das técnicas de oxidação avançada, a potencialidade do ferro metálico como catalisador no processo para a degradação do fenol em efluentes industriais, utilizando para isto lã de aço comercial. O processo foi estudado em batelada, simulando um efluente com fenol na concentração de 200mg/L, típica destas indústrias. Foram avaliadas condições de pH (5, 6, 7, 8 e 9), relação de massa de lã de aço por volume de solução (1, 2,5, 5 e 7 g/L), dosagem de peróxido de hidrogênio (1, 2 e 3 g/L) e temperatura do processo (25, 35 e 45 °C). A degradação do fenol alcançou uma eficiência de 98 porcento da concentração inicial do poluente no tempo de 120 minutos. A análise de COT (Carbono Orgânico Total) mostrou uma mineralização em torno de 33 porcento. Assim, o uso de ferro metálico como catalisador na degradação oxidante de fenol em águas apresenta-se como uma alternativa viável, devido a sua eficiência e simplicidade operacional. / [en] The increasing contamination of water by industrial activities is one of the biggest problems of modern society, because water is essential for life and for domestic activities, agriculture and industry. Among the major organic pollutants found in aqueous solution can be mentioned phenol and its derivatives. These compounds are toxic to humans and aquatic species, even at low concentrations and are produced in considerable quantities in effluent of the steel industry, oil, resins, pulp and paper among others. This study aimed to investigate, within the techniques of advanced oxidation, the potential of metallic iron as a catalyst in the process for the degradation of phenol in industrial waste, using it for steel wool. The batch process was studied, simulating an effluent phenol concentration of 200mg / L, typical of these industries. We evaluated the pH conditions (5, 6, 7, 8 and 9), mass of steel wool (1, 2.5, 5 and 7 g), mass of hydrogen peroxide (1, 2 and 3g) and process temperature (25, 35 and 45 ° C). Analyses of the degradation of phenol, made by a spectrophotometer, with a specific methodology for this analysis showed a reduction of 98 percent of the initial concentration of pollutant at time of 120 minutes. The analysis of TOC (Total Organic Carbon) showed a mineralization of about 33 percent, as reported in the literature for this type of process. Thus, the use of metallic iron as a catalyst in water treatment and effluent is presented as a viable alternative in the degradation of this pollutant, due to its efficiency, in addition to low cost and operational simplicity.

[ES] Las tecnologías convencionales para el tratamiento de aguas contaminadas no logran abordar la eliminación de contaminantes de preocupación emergente (CECs), lo que subraya la necesidad de implementar nuevas estrategias aplicables a escala industrial. Los Procesos de Oxidación Avanzada (AOPs) surgen como una opción prometedora para la eliminación de contaminantes orgánicos, gracias a su capacidad para generar especies altamente reactivas como los radicales hidroxilo en concentraciones suficientes para purificar el agua. En este contexto, el objetivo principal de esta Tesis Doctoral es diseñar y sintetizar fotocatalizadores destinados a la remediación de aguas residuales con contaminantes orgánicos. En una primera etapa, se abordó la derivatización covalente de un conocido colorante, la Riboflavina (RF), sobre partículas de sílice (SiO2@RF) con el fin de generar una superficie altamente cargada de este colorante orgánico y así modificar sus propiedades fotofísicas. Tras estudiar los procesos fotocatalíticos de eliminación de contaminantes y realizar una exhaustiva caracterización fotofísica, se postuló un nuevo mecanismo fotocatalítico para este nuevo fotocatalizador heterogéneo. Así, debido a la gran proximidad entre las moléculas de Riboflavina en la superficie del fotocatalizador SiO2@RF se evitó que el colorante experimentara cruce intersistemas, excluyendo así la formación del estado excitado triplete y, por lo tanto, del oxígeno singlete. Consecuentemente, se mejoró la fotoestabilidad de la riboflavina heterogenizada en el fotocatalizador SiO2@RF respecto a su comportamiento en medio homogéneo. A su vez, el proceso de fotocatálisis heterogénea de degradación de contaminantes ocurrió mediante reacciones de transferencia electrónica desde el estado excitado singlete. A continuación, se exploró la influencia del grosor de la capa de TiO2 en la eficiencia fotocatalítica de fotocatalizadores soportados de SiO2@TiO2. El objetivo principal fue optimizar la eficiencia del TiO2 en los procesos fotocatalíticos de degradación de contaminantes. Se introdujeron modificaciones en el método sintético sol-gel para los fotocatalizadores SiO2@TiO2, controlando tanto la velocidad de formación como el grosor de la capa de TiO2 sobre las esferas de SiO2. Tras caracterizarlos, se evaluó la eficiencia fotocatalítica en relación con la cantidad de TiO2 presente en cada fotocatalizador SiO2@TiO2. Los resultados revelaron una dependencia significativa de la actividad fotocatalítica con el grosor de la capa de TiO2, que se correlacionó con la respuesta de la fotoluminiscencia de cada muestra. En este sentido, se llevó a cabo la síntesis y caracterización de un fotocatalizador de SiO2@TiO2, así como de lana de vidrio recubierta con TiO2 (GW_TiO2). Estos materiales fueron desarrollados para eliminar un CEC, el sulfametoxazol (SMX), en una matriz simulada de aguas urbanas. Se exploró la incorporación de nanocristales de Fe3O4 en la capa del fotocatalizador SiO2@TiO2 con la intención de que actúen como trampas para los electrones fotogenerados y así, minimizar su recombinación al tiempo que ayudan a la recuperación del fotocatalizador del medio de reacción. La sinergia entre el TiO2 y el Fe3O4 en el nuevo fotocatalizador SiO2@TiO2@Fe3O4 se evaluó en la eliminación de un contaminante orgánico modelo bajo radiación UV-A. Los resultados mostraron que el Fe3O4 unido al TiO2 puede desarrollar reacciones de foto-Fenton a pH neutro. Se evaluaron H2O2 y PMS como promotores de radicales, mejorando en gran medida el poder foto-oxidativo del nuevo fotocatalizador SiO2@TiO2@Fe3O4. Así, el PMS fue más eficiente que el H2O2. Finalmente, se diseñó y sintetizó un nuevo compuesto macroscópico que mejoraba las propiedades fotocatalíticas de los existentes. Este nuevo material está constituido por micropartículas de SiO2@TiO2 unidas covalentemente a lana de vidrio. El material final se implementó en un fotorreactor de flujo continuo especialmente diseñado. / [CA] Les tecnologies convencionals per al tractament d'aigües contaminades no aconsegueixen abordar l'eliminació de contaminants de preocupació emergent (CECs), el que subratlla la necessitat d'implementar noves estratègies que tinguin aplicació a escala industrial. Els Processos d'Oxidació Avançada (AOPs) emergeixen com una opció prometedora per a l'eliminació de contaminants orgànics, gràcies a la seva capacitat per generar espècies altament reactives com els radicals hidroxil en concentracions suficients per purificar l'aigua. Aquí, l'objectiu principal de la present Tesi Doctoral és el disseny i la síntesi de fotocatalitzadors destinats a la remediació d'aigües residuals amb contaminants orgànics. En una primera etapa, es va abordar la derivatització covalent d'un conegut colorant, la Riboflavina (RF), sobre partícules de sílice (SiO2@RF) amb la finalitat de generar una superfície altament carregada d'aquest colorant orgànic i així modificar les seves propietats fotofísiques. Després d'estudiar els processos fotocatalítics d'eliminació de contaminants i realitzar una exhaustiva caracterització fotofísica, es va postular un nou mecanisme fotocatalític per aquest nou fotocatalitzador heterogeni. Així, a causa de la gran proximitat entre les molècules de Riboflavina en la superfície del fotocatalitzador SiO2@RF es va evitar que el colorant experimentés creuament intersistemes, excloent així la formació de l'estat excitat triplet i, per tant de l'oxigen singlet. Conseqüentment, es va millorar la fotoestabilitat de la riboflavina heterogenitzada en el fotocatalitzador SiO2@RF respecte al seu comportament en medi homogeni. Al seu torn, el procés de fotocatàlisi heterogènia de degradació de contaminants va ocórrer mitjançant reaccions de transferència electrònica des de l'estat excitat singlet. A continuació, es va explorar la influència de l'espessor de la capa de TiO2 en l'eficiència fotocatalítica de fotocatalitzadors suportats de SiO2@TiO2. L'objectiu principal va ser optimitzar l'eficiència del TiO2 en els processos fotocatalítics de degradació de contaminants. Es van introduir modificacions en el mètode sintètic sol-gel per als fotocatalitzadors SiO2@TiO2, controlant tant la velocitat de formació com l'espessor de la capa de TiO2 sobre les esferes de SiO2. Després de caracteritzar-los, es va avaluar l'eficiència fotocatalítica en relació amb la quantitat de TiO2 present en cada fotocatalitzador SiO2@TiO2. Els resultats van revelar una dependència significativa de l'activitat fotocatalítica amb l'espessor de la capa de TiO2, que es va correlacionar amb la resposta de la fotoluminiscència de cada mostra. En aquest sentit, es va dur a terme la síntesi i caracterització d'un fotocatalitzador de SiO2@TiO2, així com de llana de vidre recoberta amb TiO2 (GW_TiO2). Aquests materials van ser desenvolupats per eliminar un CEC, el sulfametoxazol (SMX), en una matriu simulada d'aigües urbanes. Es va explorar la incorporació de nanocristalls de Fe3O4 en la capa del fotocatalitzador SiO2@TiO2 amb la intenció que actuïn com a trampes per als electrons fotogenerats i així, minimitzar la seva recombinació alhora que ajudin a la recuperació del fotocatalitzador del medi de reacció. La sinergia entre el TiO2 i el Fe3O4 en el nou fotocatalitzador SiO2@TiO2@Fe3O4 es va avaluar en l'eliminació d'un contaminant orgànic model sota radiació UV-A. Els resultats van mostrar que el Fe3O4 unit al TiO2 pot desenvolupar reaccions de foto-Fenton a pH neutre. Es van avaluar H2O2 i PMS com a promotors de radicals, millorant en gran mesura el poder foto-oxidatiu del nou fotocatalitzador SiO2@TiO2@Fe3O4. Així, el PMS va ser més eficient que el H2O2. Finalment, es va dissenyar i sintetitzar un nou composite macroscòpic que millorava les propietats fotocatalítiques dels existents. Aquest nou materialestà constituït per micropartícules de SiO2@TiO2 unides covalentment a llana de vidre. El material final es va implementar a un fotorreactor de flux continu. / [EN] Conventional technologies for treating contaminated water fail to address the removal of emerging contaminants of concern (CECs), highlighting the need for implementing new strategies applicable on an industrial scale. Among the various techniques used in contaminated water treatment, Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) emerge as a promising option for organic contaminant removal, thanks to their ability to generate highly reactive species like hydroxyl radicals in sufficient concentrations to purify water. In this context, the main objective of this doctoral thesis is to design and synthesize photocatalysts for the remediation of wastewater with high concentrations of organic pollutants. First, the covalent derivatization of Riboflavin (RF) onto silica particles (SiO2@RF) was addressed to generate a highly charged surface of this organic dye and modify its photophysical properties. After studying the photocatalytic processes for contaminant removal and conducting the photophysical characterization, a new photocatalytic mechanism for this novel heterogeneous photocatalyst was proposed. Due to the close distance between Riboflavin molecules on the surface of the SiO2@RF photocatalyst, it prevented the dye from undergoing intersystem crossing, thus excluding the formation of the triplet excited state and therefore singlet oxygen. Consequently, the photo-stability of heterogenized riboflavin in the SiO2@RF photocatalyst was improved compared to its behavior in homogeneous media. Furthermore, the heterogeneous photocatalysis process for contaminant degradation occurred through electron transfer reactions from the singlet excited state. In the subsequent stage of research, the influence of the TiO2 layer thickness on the photocatalytic efficiency of supported photocatalysts SiO2@TiO2 was explored. The main objective was to optimize the efficiency of TiO2 in photocatalytic processes for contaminant degradation. Additionally, modifications were introduced in the sol-gel synthetic method for SiO2@TiO2 photocatalysts, intending to control both the rate of formation and the thickness of the TiO2 layer on the SiO2 spheres. After conducting a comprehensive characterization of these materials, the photocatalytic efficiency was evaluated in relation to the amount of TiO2 present in each SiO2@TiO2 photocatalyst. The results revealed a significant dependence of the photocatalytic activity on the thickness of the TiO2 layer, which correlated with the photoluminescence response of each sample. In this context, the synthesis and characterization of a SiO2@TiO2 photocatalyst, as well as glass wool coated with TiO2 (GW_TiO2), were carried out with the aim of eliminating an emerging contaminant of concern (CEC), sulfamethoxazole (SMX), in a simulated matrix of urban water under solar radiation. Furthermore, the incorporation of Fe3O4 nanocrystals into the shell of the SiO2@TiO2 photocatalyst was explored with the intention of acting as traps for photogenerated electrons, thereby minimizing their recombination while aiding in the recovery of the photocatalyst from the reaction medium. The synergy between TiO2 and Fe3O4 in the new SiO2@TiO2@Fe3O4 photocatalyst was evaluated in the removal of a model organic contaminant under UV-A radiation. The results showed that Fe3O4 attached to TiO2 can perform photo-Fenton reactions at neutral pH. Additionally, H2O2 and peroxymonosulfate (PMS) were evaluated as radical promoters, enhancing the photo-oxidative power of the SiO2@TiO2@Fe3O4 photocatalyst. Hence, PMS was more efficient than H2O2. Finally, a new macroscopic composite was designed and synthesized to improve the photocatalytic properties of existing ones. This new material consists of SiO2@TiO2 microparticles covalently bonded to glass wool, which in turn was coated with a layer of TiO2 crystals of optimized thickness according to previous chapter investigations (approximately 30 nm). The photocatalyst was implemented in a continuous flow photoreactr / Cabezuelo Gandía, O. (2024). Diseño y síntesis de nuevos fotocatalizadores para el tratamiento de aguas residuales [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/207353

The thesis mainly focused on the implementation of advanced oxidation processes for the elimination of three non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs-ketoprofen, naproxen and piroxicam in waters. The three compounds are among the most used medicines, whose presence in waters poses a potential ecotoxicological risk. Due to the low pharmaceuticals removal efficiency of traditional wastwater treatement plants, worldwide concerns and calls are raised for efficient and eco-friendly technologies. Advanced oxidation processes, such as ozonation-biofiltration, electro-Fenton and anodic oxidation processes, which attracted a growing interest over the last two decades, could achieve almost complete destruction of the pollutants studied. Firstly, removal of selected pharmaceuticals from tap water was investigated by electrochemical advanced oxidation processes "electro-Fenton" and "anodic oxidation" with Pt or boron-doped diamond anode and carbon felt cathode at lab-scale. Removal rates and minieralization current efficencies under different operatioanl conditions were analysed. Meanwhile, intermediates produced during the mineralization were also identified, which helps to propose plausible oxidation pathway of each compound in presence of *OH. Finally, the evolution of the global toxicity of treated solutions was monitored using Microtox method, based on the fluorescence inhibition of Vibrio fischeri bacteria. In the second part, the three nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory molecules added in organics-free or surface water were treated under varying ozone treatment regimes with the quite well established technology ozone/biofiltration. A bench-scale biological film was employed to determine the biodegradability of chemical intermediates formed in ozonized surface water. Identification of intermediates formed during the processes and bacterial toxicity monitoring were conducted to assess the pharmaceuticals degradation pathway and potential biological effects, respectively

M. Tech. (Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology), Vaal University of Technology / Water pollution caused by organic and inorganic contaminants represents an important ecological and health hazard. Simultaneous treatment of organic and inorganic contaminants had gradually gained great scientific interest. Advanced oxidation processes such as photocatalysis, using TiO2 as a photocatalyst, have been shown to be very robust in the removal of biorecalcitrant pollutants. These methods offer the advantage of removing the pollutants, in contrast to conventional techniques. At present, the main technical challenge that hinder its commercialization remained on the post-recovery of the photocatalyst particles after water treatment. Supporting of the photocatalyst on the adsorbent surface is important as it assists during the filtration step, reducing losses of the materials and yielding better results in degrading pollutants. To overcome this challenge, in this study composite photocatalysts of TiO2/zeolite and TiO2/silica were prepared and investigated to explore the possible application in the simultaneous removal of organic and inorganic compounds from contaminated water. The main objective of this study was to investigate the heterogeneous photocatalytic degradation of organic compounds in the presence of metal ions using composite photocatalysts. The Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), Scanning Electron Microscopy and Energy Dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX), Raman spectroscopy (RS) and zeta potential (ZP) analyses were used to characterize the prepared composite photocatalysts. The successive composite photocatalysts were used in a semi-batch reactor under an irradiation intensity of 5.5 mW/m2 (protected by a quartz sleeve) at 25 ± 3°C for the photocatalytic degradation of synthetic textile (methyl orange) and agricultural (atrazine) wastewater in the presence of ions. The effect of operating parameters such as TiO2 composition on supporting material, particle size, composite photocatalyst loading, initial pollutant concentration and pH were optimized. The effects of inorganic salts and humic acid on dye and pesticides degradation were also studied, respectively. The performance of the photocatalyst reactor was evaluated on the basis of color removal, metal ion reduction, total organic carbon (TOC) reduction, intermediates product analysis and modeling of kinetics and isotherms. Different kinetic and isotherm models were introduced and applied in this work. Important aspects such as error functions with the optimal magnitude were used for the selection of the best suitable model. / European Union. City of Mikkeli, Finland. Water Research Commission (RSA)

Les travaux menés au cours de cette thèse ont pour objectif d’étudier l’applicabilité du procédé d’ozonation catalytique TOCCATA® au traitement avancé d’eaux résiduaires urbaines pour le contrôle des émissions en micropolluants. Ce travail couvre la détermination des propriétés physico-chimiques, structurelles et de réactivité de deux catalyseurs et l’optimisation de leur conditionnement pour le procédé d’ozonation catalytique. La caractérisation hydrodynamique du réacteur à co-courant ascendant triphasique en lit fixe utilisé pour la mise en œuvre du procédé a été également réalisée. Les processus élémentaires impliqués dans le procédé ont ensuite été étudiés séparément : transfert gaz-liquide, adsorption, ozonation simple et interaction ozone/matériau. Enfin l’ozonation catalytique a été étudiée vis-à-vis de l’élimination de la matière organique des eaux usées réelles. L’ozonation catalytique se montre moins sélective que l’ozonation simple et améliore le procédé en termes de transfert d’ozone et d’élimination du carbone organique. Des mécanismes et des lois cinétiques pour chacun des processus élémentaires ont été déterminés et une loi de vitesse globale de premier ordre pour le procédé d’ozonation catalytique est proposée. L’étude de l’influence de différentes variables opératoires a été effectuée en vue de l’optimisation du procédé. L’investigation a ensuite été élargie à l’élimination de micropolluants spécifiques (carbamazépine, diuron, kétoprofène, diclofénac, naphtalène) appliquée à des eaux synthétiques, ainsi qu’à des eaux résiduaires urbaines réelles. La plupart des composés sont dégradés après application d’une faible dose d’ozone par le procédé. L’étude de leurs propriétés et de leur affinité avec le système d’ozonation catalytique a permis d’expliquer leurs comportements. / This thesis aimed to study the application of the TOCCATA® catalytic process to urban wastewaters treatment in order to control micropolluant emissions. This work first focused on physico-chemical, structural and reactional properties of two catalysts and on the optimization of their conditioning for the use in the catalytic process. The hydrodynamic characterisation of the fixed bed triphasic co-current upflow reactor used for this study was realized. Elementary processes involved in the process were studied separately: gas-liquid transfer, adsorption, single ozonation, ozone/catalyst interactions. Catalytic ozonation was then investigated for the elimination of organic matter contained in real urban wastewaters. Catalytic ozonation appeared to be less selective than single ozonation and to improve the process in terms of ozone transfer and organic carbon removal efficiency. Mechanisms and kinetic laws were determined for each elementary process and a global first order kinetic law was proposed for catalytic ozonation. The study of various operating conditions (liquid and gas flows, ozone dose …) was conducted in order to optimize the process efficiency.Investigations were then extended towards specific micropollutants elimination (carbamazepine, diuron, ketoprofen, diclofenac, naphtalene) onto synthetic waters as well as real urban wastewaters. Most of the compounds were eliminated with low dose ozonation by the TOCCATA® catalytic ozonation process. The properties of the micropollutants and their affinities with the catalytic ozonation system were studied in order to explain their behaviours.

Os tratamentos convencionais de efluentes em geral não são eficientes para a degradação de compostos persistentes como os fármacos. Neste trabalho, estuda-se o tratamento de soluções aquosas contendo o antibiótico ciprofloxacina (CIP) por meio de processo oxidativo avançado baseado em ozônio. Para tanto, foram realizados experimentos em semi-batelada com recirculação de líquido em um reator (coluna de bolhas) com escoamento gás-líquido em contracorrente. Amostras de líquido foram retiradas e analisadas para medida das concentrações de CIP e de carbono orgânico total (COT); a concentração de ozônio no gás foi medida por espectrofotometria UV-vis. Estudaram-se os efeitos das seguintes variáveis quanto à degradação de CIP, por meio de um planejamento Doehlert: concentração de ozônio à entrada do reator (8-25 mgO3 L-1), pH (3,5-10,5) e concentração inicial de CIP (5-26 mg L-1). Avaliaram-se as seguintes variáveis dependentes por meio da análise de superfícies de resposta: variação de concentração de CIP em 2 minutos; taxa inicial de degradação de CIP e variação de concentração de COT em 30 minutos. Os resultados indicaram total degradação de ciprofloxacina em menos de 15 minutos, tanto por via direta, com ataque por ozônio molecular em meio ácido, como por via indireta, com ataque por radicais hidroxila em meio básico. Os compostos resultantes da degradação da CIP mostraram-se recalcitrantes, obtendo-se maiores remoções de COT após 30 minutos apenas em meio básico ou neutro (máximo de 72,8% para pH=7, [O3]=24,9 mgO3 L-1 e [CIP]0=15,8 mg L-1). Apesar da persistência dos compostos orgânicos remanescentes, os ensaios respirométricos sugeriram que os produtos de degradação são menos tóxicos que o composto de partida, com menor inibição da atividade microbiana. No conjunto, os resultados do trabalho indicam que o processo de ozonização pode ser aplicado para pré-tratamento de efluentes aquosos contendo ciprofloxacina em baixas concentrações, podendo ser associado a processos de tratamento biológico em ETEs antes do descarte. / Conventional wastewater treatment processes are not generally efficient for the degradation of persistent substances like pharmaceutical compounds. In this work, the treatment of aqueous solutions containing the antibiotic ciprofloxacin (CIP) by means of the ozone-based advanced oxidation process is studied. With this aim, experiments were carried out in semi-batch mode with liquid circulation in a bubble column reactor with gas-liquid counter flow. Liquid samples were analyzed for CIP and total organic carbon (TOC) concentrations; ozone concentration in the gas was measured by UVvisible spectrophotometry. The effects of the following variables on CIP degradation were studied according to a Doehlert experimental design: inlet ozone concentration (8 to 25 mgO3 L-1), pH (3.5 to 10.5), initial CIP concentration (5 to 26 mg L-1). The following dependent variables were investigated by response surface analysis: variation in CIP concentration after 2 minutes; CIP initial degradation rate and variation in TOC concentration after 30 minutes. The results showed total degradation of ciprofloxacin in less than 15 minutes either by direct reaction with molecular ozone in acidic medium, or by indirect attack of hydroxyl radicals in alkaline medium. Compounds resulting from CIP degradation showed to be recalcitrant, yielding larger TOC removals after 30 minutes only in alkaline or neutral medium (maximum of 72.8% for pH=7, [O3]=24.9 mgO3 L-1, and [CIP]0=15.8 mg L-1). Despite the persistence of remaining organic compounds, respirometric assays suggested that degradation products are less toxic than the parent compound, exhibiting lower inhibition of microbial activity. Overall, the results indicate that the ozonation process can be used in the pre-treatment of aqueous effluents containing ciprofloxacin in low concentrations, and could be associated with biological treatment processes in wastewater treatment plants prior to final disposal.

Oxidation reactions are of prime importance at an industrial level and correspond to a huge market. Oxidation reactions are widely practiced in industry and are thoroughly studied in academic and industrial laboratories. Achievements in oxidation process resulted in the development of many new selective oxidation processes. Environmental protection also relies mainly on oxidation reactions. Remarkable results obtained in this field contributed to promote the social image of chemistry which gradually changes from being the enemy of nature to becoming its friend and savior. This study dealt with two aspects regarding oxidation process. The first aspect represented an experimental study for the partial oxidation of benzene to phenol using Pd membrane in the gaseous phase. The second part was a theoretical study for some of the advanced oxidation process (AOPs) which are applied for contaminant destructions in polluted waters. Niwa and coworkers reported a one step catalytic process to convert benzene to phenol using Pd membrane. According to their work, this technique will produce a higher yield than current cumene and nitrous oxide based industrial routes to phenol. A similar system to produce phenol from benzene in one step was studied in this work. Results at low conversion of benzene to phenol were obtained with a different selectivity from the reported work. High conversion to phenol was not obtained using the same arrangement as the reported one. High conversion to phenol was obtained using a scheme different from the one reported by Niwa et al1. It was found that producing phenol from benzene is not related to Pd-membrane since phenol was produced by passing all reactants over a Pd catalyst. Within the studied experimental conditions, formation of phenol was related to Pd catalyst since Pt catalyst was not capable of activating benzene to produce phenol. Other evidence was the result of a blank experiment, where no catalyst was used. From this experiment no phenol was produced. A kinetic model for the advanced oxidation process using ultraviolet light and hydrogen peroxide (UV/H2O2) in a completely mixed batch reactor has been tested for the destruction of humic acid in aqueous solutions. Known elementary chemical reactions with the corresponding rate constants were taken from the literature and used in this model. Photochemical reaction parameters of hydrogen peroxide and humic acid were also taken from the literature. Humic acid was assumed to be mainly destroyed by direct photolysis and radicals. The rate constant for the HA- reaction was optimized from range of values in the literature. Other fitted parameters were the rate constant of direct photolysis of hydrogen peroxide and humic acid. A series of reactions were proposed for formation of organic byproducts of humic acid destruction by direct photolysis and radicals. The corresponding rate constants were optimized based on the best fit within the range of available published data. This model doesn't assume the net formation of free radicals species is zero. The model was verified by predicting the degradation of HA and H2O2 for experimental data taken from the literature. The kinetic model predicted the effect of initial HA and H2O2 concentration on the process performance regarding the residual fraction of hydrogen peroxide and nonpurgeable dissolved organic carbon (NPDOC). The kinetic model was used to study the effect of the presence of carbonate/bicarbonate on the rate of degradation of NPDOC using hydrogen peroxide and UV (H2O2/UV) oxidation. Experimental data taken from literature were used to test the kinetic model in the presence of carbonate/bicarbonate at different concentrations. The kinetic model was able to describe the trend of the experimental data. The kinetic model simulations, along with the experimental data for the conditions in this work, showed a retardation effect on the rate of degradation of NPDOC due to the presence of bicarbonate and carbonate. This effect was attributed to the scavenging of the hydroxyl radicals by carbonate and bicarbonate. A kinetic model for the degradation of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) in a batch reactor applying Fenton's reagent (FeII/ H2O2) and Fenton-like reagent (Feo/ H2O2) in aqueous solutions was proposed. All of the rate and equilibrium constants for hydrogen peroxide chemistry in aqueous solutions were taken from the literature. Rate and equilibrium constants for ferric and ferrous ions reactions in this model were taken from the reported values in the literature, except for the rate constant for the reaction of ferric ions with hydrogen peroxide where it was fitted within the range that was reported in the literature. Rate constant for iron dissolution was also a fitted parameter. The mechanism of MTBE degradation by the hydroxyl radicals was proposed based on literature studies. The kinetic model was tested on available experimental data from the literature which involved the use of Fenton's reagent and Fenton-like reagent for MTBE degradation. The degradation of MTBE in Fenton's reagent work was characterized to proceed by two stages, a fast one which involved the reaction of ferrous ions with hydrogen peroxide (FeII/H2O2 stage) and another, relatively, slower stage which involved the reaction of ferric ions with hydrogen peroxide (FeIII/H2O2 stage). The experimental data of MTBE degradation in the FeII/H2O2 stage were not sufficient to validate the model, however the model predictions of MTBE degradation in the FeIII/H2O2 stage was good. Also, the model was able to predict the byproducts formation from MTBE degradation and their degradation especially methyl acetate, and tert-butyl alcohol. The effect of each proposed reaction on MTBE degradation and the byproducts formation and degradation was elucidated based on a sensitivity analysis. The kinetic model predicted the degradation of MTBE for Fenton-like reagent for the tested experimental data. Matlab (R13) was used to solve the set of ordinary nonlinear stiff differential equations that described rate of species concentrations in each advanced oxidation kinetic model. Niwa, S. et al., Science 295 (2002) 105

A presença de antibióticos no meio ambiente aquático tem causado crescente preocupação mundial. Além dos relatos de resistência de bactérias a antibióticos, essa classe de fármacos também pode causar efeitos tóxicos e atuar como perturbadores endócrinos em diversos organismos vivos e, possivelmente, em humanos. Dentre os antibióticos comumente usados destacam-se as sulfonamidas, detectadas em águas subterrâneas e superficiais. Os processos avançados de oxidação (POA) têm sido apontados como tecnologias eficientes para tratamento de poluentes recalcitrantes em diferentes matrizes aquosas. Dentre os POA, o processo foto-Fenton é uma alternativa para a degradação de compostos não biodegradáveis, incluindo fármacos. Uma vez que a principal limitação do processo é o intervalo de pH (2,5- 4,0), a reação pode ser vantajosamente conduzida empregando-se substâncias bio-orgânicas solúveis (BOS) como agentes complexantes de Fe3+ em condições ligeiramente ácidas (pH 5). Por sua vez, o emprego da energia ultrassônica tem sido menos estudado. Nesse contexto, o objetivo deste trabalho é estudar a degradação do antibiótico sulfadiazina (SDZ) por meio do processo foto-Fenton na presença de substâncias bio-orgânicas solúveis (UVvis/ Fe3+/H2O2/BOS) e do processo de cavitação por meio de ultrassom (US). Os resultados obtidos mostram que a sulfadiazina é eficientemente degradada por ultrassom de alta frequência. As maiores porcentagens e taxas de remoção são obtidas usando menor frequência de operação (580 kHz), maior potência dissipada e em pH ligeiramente ácido (melhor condição: pH 5,5). Além disso, a reação de Fenton, combinada com o tratamento US, melhorou notavelmente a degradação da SDZ, particularmente quando quantidades extras de H2O2 foram adicionadas ao sistema. Por sua vez, o uso de BOS como aditivos no processo foto-Fenton apresenta influência marcante na fotodegradação da SDZ em condições ligeiramente ácidas (pH 5). Os BOS podem estabilizar espécies de ferro em solução aquosa em pH próximos ao neutro, o que constitui uma propriedade de grande interesse. Sob as condições estudadas, o BOS CVT230 foi mais eficiente do que FORSUD, provavelmente devido às diferenças nos grupos funcionais presentes na composição destas substâncias. Finalmente, foram calculados os indicadores de consumo de energia elétrica por ordem de grandeza (EEO) para o processo de ultrassom (1572 kW h m-3 ordem-1) e área do coletor por ordem de grandeza (ACO) para o processo foto-Fenton (8,07 m2 m-3 ordem-1). / The potential impacts of antibiotic residues in the environment have become an emerging concern during recent years due to their relation with the development of resistant bacteria, and in some cases to their ability to cause toxic and endocrine disrupting effects in humans and other living organisms. Highlighted among the commonly used antibiotics are the sulfonamides, detected in groundwater and surface water. Advanced oxidation processes (AOP) might constitute an important alternative to deal with pharmaceuticals degradation. Among them, the photo-Fenton process has been widely used. One of its major drawbacks is the highly acidic pH needed (2,5-4,0) to avoid the formation of photochemically inactive iron oxides and hydroxides. The ability of soluble bio-organic substances (SBO) to complex metal cations such as iron is useful for the development of photo-Fenton at mild acidic conditions (pH 5). In turn, the use of ultrasonic energy has been less studied. In this context, the aim of this work is to study the degradation of the antibiotic sulfadiazine (SDZ) by the photo-Fenton process in the presence of soluble bio-organic substances (UV-vis/Fe3+/H2O2/SBO) and by ultrasonic cavitation (US). The results confirm that SDZ is effectively degraded by highfrequency ultrasound. Higher SDZ percent removals and removal rates were observed for the lowest operating frequency (580 kHz), higher dissipated power, and in slightly acidic solution (pH 5.5). On the other hand, SDZ degradation is highly improved in the case of the US/ Fe(II)/H2O2 system. The use of the SBO as Fenton additives in turn has a remarkable influence in SDZ photodegradation at slightly acid conditions (pH 5). This could be ascertained to the complexation of iron by the SBO, hence maintained in the reaction medium as a photoactive species. Under the studied conditions, the BOS CVT230 was more efficient than FORSUD, probably due to differences in the functional groups present in the composition of these substances. Finally, the figures-of merit electrical energy per order (EEO) and collector area per order (ACO) were calculated for the ultrasound (1572 kW h m-3 ordem-1) and photo-Fenton (8,07 m2 m-3 ordem-1) processes respectively.