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Global planarization is one of the major demands of the semiconductor industry. Chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) is the planarization method of choice use to achieve the required stringent tolerances essential for successful fabrication of next generation Integrated Circuits (IC). The predominant reason for CMP defects is the shear and normal stresses during polishing to which the material is subjected. Understanding the process of CMP and factor that contribute to overall stress addition during polishing requires an approach that encompasses all the four major categories of variables, namely: a) machine parameters, b) material properties, c) polishing pad characteristics, and d) polishing slurry performance. In this research, we studied the utilized in-situ technique involving acoustic emission (AE) signal monitoring and coefficient of friction (COF) monitoring using a CETRTM Bench Top CMP Tester to evaluate the impact of variation in machine parameters on the CMP process. The mechanical and tribological properties of different candidate materials have been evaluated bring potential challenges in their integration to the fore. The study also involves destructive and non destructive testing of polishing pads performed for characterization and optimization of polishing pad architecture. Finally, the investigation concludes proposing novel nanoparticle CMP slurry which has a predominant chemical component in its polishing mechanism. It was found that the decrease in the mechanical shear and normal loading by: a) operating the process in the low stress regime, b) using potential materials that are mechanically stronger, c) using polishing pads with lesser variation in specific gravity and with a surface that is has its mechanical properties fine tuned to those of the wafer, and d) deploying polishing slurry with a significant chemical component mechanical removal, are some of the approaches that can be employed to meet the future challenges of the CMP process and reduce the defect associated with it.

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Submitted in fulfillment of requirements of the degree of Master in Health Sciences: Dental Technology, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2016. / Pumice is used in the polishing of dental appliances to remove surface irregularities. It is usually used in a slurry form that is pumice powder mixed with water. In Nigeria, the increased cost of pumice as a result of its limited supply into the country has encouraged dental technicians to re-use pumice slurry for longer periods than advocated when polishing acrylic dentures, whether new or old dentures which have been worn in the mouth. Consequently, this is likely to increase cross-infection of communicable diseases in the dental technology laboratory. Although materials such as white sand, black sand and porcelnite can be used, literature documents that these materials are less effective in the polishing of acrylic dentures (Areeg 2011). The focus of this study was to use eggshells, a natural waste product, to develop and test the quality of an alternative material to reduce the surface roughness of heat-cured acrylic resins. A quantitative research paradigm and an experimental research strategy were adopted. The research design included two phases. In phase one of this study, different characterisation techniques such as Brunnae-Emmer Teller (BET); Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR); X-ray Diffraction (XRD); Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX) and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM); Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM); Laser Scattering Particle Size Distribution Analyser (PSA); Thermo-Gravimetric Analysis (TGA); and Induction-Coupling-Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES) were used to assess the suitability of the new abrasive material (NAM). In addition, the level of microbial contamination of the NAM was assessed in line with the specified microbial limits for cosmetic products. In contrast, phase two investigated the product-based quality of the NAM as an abrasive material for removable dental appliances. There were two sample groups, that is, the NAM (test group) and Pumice (control), and each sample group had 50 PMMA acrylic specimens. The surface roughness (Ra) was measured using a Talysurf profilometer. An Independent Tukey test was used to analyse the Ra values (p=0.05). A Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Optical Microscope (OEM) were further used to support the results of the profilometer in terms of the quality of surface finish and polish. Validity of the study was achieved following the ISO 20795-1 (2013) methods of preparation and fabrication of the acrylic specimens. The reliability was determined via reproducibility and repeatability of tests. The BET analysis showed that the NAM is predominantly a mesoporous powder. The FTIR and XRD analyses confirmed that the NAM is pure calcite with unique water absorbing characteristics, and is free of bacteria. The EDX and ICP-OES analyses revealed calcium, oxygen and carbon as the major elemental composition of the NAM. The SEM and TEM images revealed irregular shaped particles in the NAM. The PSA analysis of the particle distribution showed the NAM to be superfine (50nm to 0.3µm) and medium (44µm powder), respectively. The TGA analysis revealed a high-grade carbonate product in the NAM (>66.0 mass% of calcium carbonates). In addition, and in terms of in the qualities of the NAM in reducing the surface roughness of PMMA resins, the test group and the control group produced Ra values that were significant different (p<0.0001). The SEM and OEM analyses further confirmed the differences in the surfaces between the polished sample groups at different magnifications. Overall, the control showed the highest mean average (0.1056±0.03688µm), whereas the test group had the lowest Ra values (0.0476±0.01379). The lowest Ra values measured with the test group indicated that the NAM improves the surface smoothness of PMMA acrylic specimens. Notably, this study conclusively showed that the NAM effectively reduces the surface roughness to below the threshold limit value of 0.2µm. Significantly, and in associating the Ra values to the threshold limit value of 0.2µm, the NAM produced better results than pumice. Hence the use of the NAM as a polishing material for acrylic dentures is highly recommended. Finally and in line the NAM being a suitable alternative to pumice as it effectively reduces the surface roughness of PMMA specimens, future investigation into the use of eggshell nanoparticles to develop dental prophylaxes will be encouraged. / M

As coroas provisórias apresentam algumas características que podem comprometer a estética e facilitar aderência de microorganismos e formação de placa. Estudos prévios demonstraram que a forma de processamento influi na rugosidade e porosidade de uma marca comercial de resina acrílica comumente utilizada para a confecção de provisórias. Como diferentes marcas comerciais apresentam diferenças de qualidade, o presente estudo teve como objetivo principal avaliar a rugosidade superficial de quatro marcas comerciais de resina acrílica utilizadas na confecção de coroas provisórias (Dencor, Vipi, Duralay e Alike) de acordo com quatro técnicas de manipulação, diretas e indiretas. Os processamentos avaliados foram: GRUPO I autopolimerização sob pressão em matriz de silicona; GRUPO II - autopolimerização térmica em mufla; GRUPO III autopolimerização utilizando a técnica do pincel; GRUPO IV autopolimerização pela mistura em pote dappen. Para cada tipo de processamento foram confeccionados 12 corpos-deprova de cada material, totalizando 48 corpos-de-prova para cada grupo e 192 espécimes ao total. Logo após a confecção dos espécimes foi realizado o teste de rugosidade de superfície (Ra) através de um rugosímetro/perfilômetro. Posteriormente, a superfície dos mesmos foi uniformizada e polida com a utilização de politriz, realizando-se novamente os mesmos testes de rugosidade. Antes do acabamento e polimento de superfície, os resultados encontrados apontaram a maior rugosidade para resina Vipi (4,074 ± 0,541) e técnica da mistura em dappen gupo IV (3,538 ± 0,509), enquanto que a menor rugosidade foi encontrada para resina Alike (2,671 ± 0,512) e técnica da prensagem em mufla grupo II (2,733 ± 0,470). Após acabamento e polimento, a maior rugosidade foi encontrada para resina Vipi (0,207 ± 0,032) e técnica da pressão grupo I (0,172 ± 0,037), enquanto que a menor rugosidade para resina Alike (0,113 ± 0,036) e técnica da prensagem em mufla grupo II (0,138 ± 0,027). Com os resultados obtidos, foi possível concluir que a melhor combinação para confecção de coroas provisórias em resina acrílica foi a técnica da prensagem em mufla associada à resina Alike. / Provisional crowns have some features that may compromise aesthetics and favors adherence of microorganisms and dental plaque formation. Previous studies have shown that processing may influence roughness and porosity of acrylic resins commonly used make provisional crowns. Because the several commercial resins available present differences in their quality the aim of this study was to evaluate the surface roughness of four commercial brands of acrylic resins (Dencor, Vipi, Duralay and Alike) according to four manipulation techniques (two direct and two indirect): GROUP I - autopolimerization under pressure in a silicone matrix; GROUP II autppolimerization in flask; GROUP III - autopolimerization using the bead brush technique; GROUP IV - autopolimerization after mixing in dappen dish. For each type of processing 12 specimens were made of each material, being 48 specimens for each group and 192 specimens in total. After specimens preparation, surface roughness tests (Ra) was performed using a rugosimeter / profilometer. Posteriorly, all surfaces were polished for standardization and same roughness tests were performed again. Before finishing and polishing, the results pointed out that Vipi resin presented the highest roughness (4.074 ± 0.541). Mixing the resin in dappen dish group IV (3.538 ± 0.509) also presented the highest roughness values regarding the technique. The lowest roughness values were found with Alike resin (2.671 ± 0.512) and flask technique group II (2.733 ± 0.470). After finishing and polishing techniques, the highest roughness was found with Vipi resin (0.207 ± 0.032) and the autopolimetization under pressure in silicone matrix technique - group I (0.172 ± 0.037). The lowest roughness values were found with Alike resin (0.113 ± 0.036) and flask technique group II (0.138 ± 0.027). With these results, it was possible to conclude that the best combination for making provisional crowns was the flask technique associated with Alike resin.

O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar as alterações nas ranhuras dos bráquetes após uso clínico e o seu impacto na alteração da força de atrito. Para isso foi realizada uma revisão sistemática da literatura, e um estudo prospectivo comparando os níveis de atrito antes e depois do uso clínico dos bráquetes, assim como comparando dois diferentes materiais para jateamento profilático. A revisão sistemática avaliou 7 artigos que cumpriram os devidos critérios de inclusão, a partir de busca eletrônica realizada em diversas bases de dados, sem limitações quanto a data e o idioma. Foram avaliados quanto a qualidade metodológica, e ao risco de viés de acordo com uma versão modificada do checklist de Donws and Black. 6 dos 7 artigos apresentaram resultados com aumento significativo da força de atrito após o bráquete ser submetido ao uso clínico. O segundo estudo do presente trabalho se trata de um estudo prospectivo in-vivo, ao qual 16 pacientes, submetidos a tratamento ortodôntico com bráquetes metálicos convencionais, compuseram 3 grupos de acordo com o protocolo de controle profilático realizado nos bráquetes de 2ºs pré-molares (Grupo 1 - pacientes submetidos à profilaxia com jateamento à base de bicarbonato de sódio; Grupo 2 pacientes submetidos à profilaxia com jateamento à base de glicina; Grupo 3 pacientes não foram submetidos à profilaxia profissional) Os bráquetes foram posteriormente removidos da cavidade oral e submetidos a ensaios de força de atrito, além de análise qualitativo da rugosidade superficial por microscopia eletrônica de varredura. O grupo controle (GC) para comparação foi constituído por bráquetes novos não submetidos à exposição em cavidade bucal. O teste de ANOVA seguido pelo teste Tukey foram utilizados para avaliar as diferenças entre os 4 grupos (GC, G1, G2 e G3). Os grupos de bráquetes usados apresentaram aumento da força de atrito, porém apenas o grupo que não foi realizado jateamento profilático a cada consulta (G3), apresentou diferença estatisticamente significante em relação ao Grupo Controle. Não houve diferença estatisticamente significante também quando comparados os dois diferentes materiais utilizados para o jateamento profilático. / The aim of this study was to evaluate the changes in bracket slots after clinical use and their impact on friction force. It is composed by a systematic review of the literature and a prospective study comparing the friction levels before and after the clinical use, as well as comparing two different materials for prophylactic blasting. The systematic review evaluated 7 articles that satisfied the inclusion criteria, based on electronic searches conducted in several databases, without limitations regarding publication year or language. The methodological quality and risk of bias were assessed according to a modified version of the Donws and Black checklist. 6 of the 7 articles presented significant increase in the friction force on retrieved brackets, after clinical use. The second study of the present study is a prospective in-vivo study which 16 patients were submitted to orthodontic treatment, divided in 3 groups according to the protocol of prophylactic control performed in brackets (Group 1 - patients submitted prophylaxis with sodium bicarbonate blasting, Group 2 - patients submitted to prophylaxis with glycine-based blasting, Group 3 - patients were not submitted to professional prophylaxis) Brackets were later removed from the oral cavity and subjected to friction force tests, in addition to qualitative analysis of surface roughness by scanning electron microscopy. The control group (CG) for comparison consisted of as received brackets (brand new brackets). The ANOVA test followed by the Tukey test were used to evaluate the differences between the 4 groups (GC, G1, G2 and G3). The retrieved groups presented an increase on friction force, but only the group that did not perform prophylactic blasting every appointment (G3) presented a statistically significant difference in comparison to the Control Group. There was no statistically significant difference also when comparing the two different materials used for prophylactic blasting.

O objetivo desse trabalho foi verificar a influência do procedimento de acabamento e polimento das restaurações de resina composta na resistência adesiva à dentina, através de testes de microtração, assim como, analisar em microscopia eletrônica de varredura a interface dente/restauração no nível do ângulo cavo-superficial. Terceiros molares humanos extraídos e hígidos foram utilizados nesse estudo, após aprovação pelo Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa da FOB-USP. Os dentes foram restaurados com sistema adesivo Solobond M (VOCO) e resina composta Grandio (VOCO) e distribuídos nos seguintes grupos: G1 (controle) - sem acabamento e polimento, G2 - acabamento e polimento imediato, G3 - sem acabamento e polimento e armazenado por sete dias e G4 - acabamento e polimento após sete diasem estufa a 37ºC. Palitos com dimensões de 1mm x 1mm foram obtidos e submetidos a uma força de tração em uma máquina de ensaios universal EMIC à velocidade de 0.5mm/min. Para a análise em microscopia eletrônica de varredura, 20 terceiros molares receberam quatro preparos cavitários com 1mm de diâmetro e 3mm de altura que foram restaurados com o mesmo sistema restaurador utilizado para os testes de resistência adesiva e distribuídos nos mesmos grupos descritos acima. Após a obtenção dos espécimes de cada grupo, os dentes foram metalizados e analisados na interface dente/restauração em microscopia eletrônica de varredura por três examinadores. As médias de resistência adesiva (MPa) e respectivos desvios-padrão foram: G1 - 23,05 (8,62); G2 - 17,34 (6,11); G3 - 21,64 (7,63) e G4 - 18,12 (6,51). Os valores de resistência adesiva submetidos à Anova a um critério e teste de Fisher permitiram concluir que o procedimento de acabamento e polimento das restaurações de resina composta diminuiu significativamente a resistência adesiva à dentina. O teste de Kruskal-Wallis aplicado aos escores obtidos da análise das fendas no ângulo cavo-superficial permitiu determinar que o acabamento e polimento da resina composta não interfere na formação de fendas. / The objective of this study was to verify the influence of finishing and polishing procedures on dentin bond strength of resin composite, and at the interface tooth/restoration using MEV. Recently extracted human third molars were utilized in this study, after approved by ethics and search committee at FOB-USP. The teeth were restored with Solobond M (VOCO) adhesive system and resin composite Grandio (VOCO) and randomized in the follow groups: G1 (control) - no polishing and finishing, G2 - immediate polishing and finishing procedures, G3 - no polishing and finishing and stored for seven days e G4 - polishing and finishing procedures after seven days under water at 37oC. Sticks 1mm x 1mm were obtained and the bonds were then stressed to failure by microtensile forces in a EMIC universal testing machine at a crosshead speed of 0.5 mm/min. Twenty human third molars were prepared with four cavities with 1mm diameter and 3mm height and restored with the same restoration system used for the microtensile tests and were distributed at the same groups and the interface tooth/restoration was analyzed in MEV by three examinators. The means of bond strength (MPa) and respective standard deviation were: G1 - 23.05 (8.62); G2 - 17.34 (6.11); G3 - 21.64 (7.63) e G4 - 18.12 (6.51). The data were analyzed by One-Way Anova and e Fisher´s test. It was possible to conclude that the finishing and polishing procedures of resin composite decrease significantly the bond strength to dentin of the composite restorations. The Kruskal- Wallis test aplicated to gap scores at the tooth/restoration interface allows to determinate that the finishing and polishing procedures of resin composite do not interfere in gap formation.

RESUMO A qualidade da superfície de trabalhos cerâmicos que requer ajuste durante a sua adaptação ao remanescente dentário desperta a atenção durante os procedimentos odontológicos restauradores estéticos. Observa-se a necessidade freqüente de realizar desgastes superficiais nas restaurações cerâmicas, sendo que a preservação de uma superfície lisa é importante para as propriedades destes materiais, bem como para o seu comportamento clínico. Este trabalho propõe-se a avaliar a técnica com maior capacidade de polimento da superfície cerâmica asperizada, através da medição com ponta apalpadora de um rugosímetro, e utilizando o MEV para observações visuais com relação às técnicas empregadas. Para tal 80 corpos-de-prova foram confeccionados utilizando-se as porcelanas Omega 900 e Vitadur Alpha, constituindo quatro grupos experimentais: A – glaze (controle); B – polimento com borrachas abrasivas da DFL mais pasta para polimento da KOTA; C – polimento com borrachas abrasivas mais rodas de feltro mais pasta para polimento Porcelize (Cosmedent); D – polimento com borrachas abrasivas mais pasta porcelize mais discos Flexibuff mais pasta diamantada para brilho Enamelize (Cosmedent). Os dados receberam tratamento estatístico por meio da Análise de variância (ANOVA) e teste de Tukey, o qual indicou haver diferença estatisticamente significante entre os tipos de polimento para os quais as porcelanas foram submetidas, e na interação porcelana / polimento. Os resultados sugerem que todos os tratamentos polidores diminuem a rugosidade superficial das porcelanas em relação ao grupo controle e que dependendo da porcelana utilizada para cada técnica pode-se ter uma variação na rugosidade superficial. Quanto à observação pelo microscópio eletrônico de varredura houve uma correlação parcial entre este e os resultados obtidos pelo rugosímetro, pois aqui a porcelana Omega 900 mostrou-se mais polida no grupo controle, enquanto que na análise pelo rugosímetro apontou para a técnica polidora do Grupo D como sendo aquela que produziu uma superfície mais lisa para esta porcelana. Por outro lado, mostrou que o melhor polimento alcançado pela porcelana Vitadur Alpha foi através do polimento do Grupo C, o que está de acordo com os resultados obtidos pelo rugosímetro. / SUMMARY Aesthetic dentistry uses materials that can copy some lost caractheristics of the natural dentition, as color, mechanical resistance and smoothness.The better material for this are the ceramics. On the other hand, it is commum to have to grind them with diamond instruments for adjustment wich removes the glazed surfaces. This procedure can cause abrasion of the opposite teeth, plaque retention, injury of surrounding tissues and low aesthetics qualities. This study evaluated the roughness average in two dental ceramics, Omega 900 e Vitadur Alpha, that were grinding with diamond instruments after the glaze technique, and received three different polishing systems. The control group remained glazed until the end of the research. The groups were: Group A – control; Group B – grinding by fine and ultrafine points + polishing with DFL rubber points + KOTA diamond paste; Group C –grinding by fine and ultrafine points + polishing with rubber points + felt discs + Porcelize diamond paste (Cosmedent); Group D - grinding by fine and ultrafine points + polishing with rubber points + Porcelize + Flexibuff discs + Enamelize polishing paste (Cosmedent). To measure the roughness average in the samples it was used a profilometer Surftest SV-600 with the software Surfpack and the images were observed in the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to comparation. The results received estatistical analysis using ANOVA and Tukey test (p˜0.05), and a significant tatistical difference was observed between the polishing systems , and in the porcelain/polishing interaction, which showed that all the polishing systems decreased the surface roughness of the porcelains after been grinding with diamond instruments, which was a better result than the control group. In the SEM analysis it was clear the presence of a partial relationship between the profilometer and that one, because here the Omega porcelain showed a more smoothness surface with the glazed treatment compaired with the others, differently from the profilometer analysis

Orientador: Regina Helena Barbosa Tavares da Silva / Banca: José Cláudio Martins Segalla / Banca: Paulo Martins Ferreira / Resumo: Este estudo avaliou a eficiência de diferentes técnicas de acabamento e polimento sobre duas cerâmicas odontológicas (Duceram Plus e Duceram LFC), em relação à rugosidade média superficial (Ra). Foram preparados quarenta discos com 8 mm de diâmetro e 4 mm de espessura para cada uma das cerâmicas utilizadas, seguindo-se as recomendações do fabricante. Previamente ao glazeamento, todos os corpos-de-prova foram regularizados com o auxílio de lixas d'água de diferentes granulações (240,360 e 600, nesta ordem), recebendo, em seguida, uma camada de glaze. Os 40 corpos-de-prova de cada cerâmica foram divididos em 8 grupos com 5 representantes em cada um, recebendo diferentes tratamentos de superfície: T1- glaze; T2- desgaste com ponta diamantada fina e ultrafina; T3- T2 + sistema de acabamento e polimento dental Sof-Lex (3 M); T4- T3 + pasta diamantada; T5- T2 + kit de polimento Super-Snap (Shofu); T6- T5 + pasta diamantada; T7- T2 mais borrachas abrasivas Viking (KG Sorensen); T8- T7 + pasta diamantada. Foram realizadas cinco mensurações de rugosidade média (Ra, em æm) em cada corpo-de-prova, utilizando-se um rugosímetro ajustado com cut-off de 0,25 mm, extensão de tracejamento de 1,25 mm e velocidade de medição de 0,10 mm/s. Os resultados foram analisados estatisticamente pelos testes ANOVA e Tukey, com nível de significância de 5%. Os melhores tratamentos para ambas as cerâmicas avaliadas foram T3, T4, T5 e T6, apresentando semelhança estatística entre si; O glazeamento (T1) foi similar estatisticamente aos tratamentos T3, T4, T5 e T6 para a cerâmica Duceram LFC, em relação ao fator Ra; O tratamento T1 apresentou-se com diferença estatisticamente significante e mais rugoso que o tratamento T3, T4 e T6 para a cerâmica Duceram Plus, em relação ao fator Ra; As duas cerâmicas odontológicas avaliadas apresentaram ...(Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: This study assessed the efficacy of different current porcelain finishing and polishing procedures on two different dental ceramic (Duceram Plus and Duceram LFC) quantitatively with a profilometer. Forty disks (8 mm in diameter and 4 mm thick) were prepared for each dental ceramic according to the manufacturer's directions. Prior to glazing, all specimens' surfaces were abraded using a 240, 360 and 600-grit wet sandpaper. Then, all samples were glazed. The forty samples of each dental ceramic were divided into 8 groups of five specimens each, according to the surface treatment: T1- glaze; T2- abraded with fine and ultra fine diamond burs (KG Sorensen); T3- T2 following Sof-Lex (3M) polishing system; T4- T3 following diamond paste; T5- T2 following Super-Snap polishing kit (Shofu); T6- T5 following diamond paste; T7- Viking rubber wheels (KG Sorensen); T8- T7 following diamond paste. Five roughness measurements (Ra, æm) were performed on each disc using a profilometer with cut-off value of 0.25 mm and a tracing length of 1.25 mm and a speed of 0.1 mm per second. These values were tested using a two-way analysis of variance and Tukey test at 5% significance level. The result showed (to Ra factor) that T3, T4, T5 and T6 were the best surface treatment for both dental ceramic materials and were statistically equals; the glazed treatment (T1) was similar statistically to the polishing treatment T3, T4, T5 and T6 for Duceram LFC ceramic; the glazed treatment (T1) was different statistically and rougher than the polishing treatment T3, T4 e T6 for Duceram Plus ceramic; the two different dental ceramic had similar behavior when received the same surface treatment; and the diamond-abraded group (T2) had the rougher surface in both dental ceramic studied. / Mestre