It is hoped that this exposition of the Platonic and Pragmatic systems of philosophy will aid in the understanding and interpretation of the highest Good, and what the implications are in modern education. The author has attempted to point out the identical phases and contrasting features, and to summarize the data in which research has been plentiful.

This study investigated how the speech act of refusal is realized in Egyptian Arabic by intermediate and advanced American learners of Arabic as a foreign language. It also compared the performance of the learners to that of native speakers of Egyptian Arabic and native speakers of American English. The study aimed to investigate the relationship between the learners' language proficiency and their pragmatic competence. In addition, it examined the extent of pragmatic transfer from L1 and whether there was a relationship between the degree of pragmatic transfer and the level of L2 proficiency. The study also examined how refusals are structured and organized at the discourse level. Four groups participated in the study: 10 native speakers of Egyptian Arabic, 10 native speakers of American English, 10 American learners of Arabic at the intermediate level, and 10 at the advanced level. Data were collected using enhanced open-ended role plays which consisted of 6 scenarios eliciting refusals of offers and requests in equal and unequal status situations. Both quantitative and qualitative data analytic methods were used for analyzing the interactions. Results show that there were important differences between the two learner groups and the native speakers of Egyptian Arabic with regard to the frequency of direct and indirect strategies and individual strategy use. For example, the learners used a higher percentage of direct strategies and a lower percentage of indirect strategies than the native speakers of Egyptian Arabic, especially in higher status situations. The learners also used a higher percentage of the Statement of Regret and Request for Information/Clarification strategies and a lower percentage of the Postponement and Hedging strategies than the Egyptians. With regard to differences between the two learner groups, the advanced students were able to engage in more negotiation and use an overall lower percentage of direct strategies and a higher percentage of indirect strategies than their intermediate counterparts. Evidence of positive and negative pragmatic transfer was observed in the two learner groups; however a higher degree of transfer was observed in the advanced students. Individual differences among the learners were found to play a major role in how refusals were realized.

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Die vorliegende Abschlussarbeit setzte sich zum Ziel, die Verben des Mitteilens in den Zeitungen Stuttgarter Nachrichten und Berliner Morgenpost zu analysieren. Die dabei insbesondere in den Blick genommenen Redemittel waren die Verben des Mitteilens in den Polizeiberichten als Untersuchungsquelle, weil sie beim Informieren auf den Informationssender sowie –empfänger in der genannten Textsorte sehr häufig vorkommen. Beim Analysieren von Verben des Mitteilens in beiden genannten Zeitungen wurden folgende Schlussfolgerungen gezogen: 1. Es wurden 220 Belege von Polizeiberichten, je 110 aus den Zeitungen Stuttgarter Nachrichten (StN) und Berliner Morgenpost (BMp) gefunden. Jeder Bericht wurde nach seinem Inhalt zur bestimmten Gruppe zugeordnet: Berichte über Verkehrsunfälle, Unglücksfälle, Brände, Diebstähle und Überfälle, Drohungen, Morde und andere Arten der Berichte. 2. In jedem Polizeibericht von dieser Art wurde nach den Verben des Mitteileins (s. S. 16) gesucht und nach dem pragmatischen Prinzip analysiert. Nach der Analyse wurde folgender Schluss gezogen, dass mit den Verben dieser Art nicht nur die Polizei bzw. zu der anderen Gerechtigkeitsinstitution gehörende Person, sondern auch die Bürger zu den Informationssendern werden können: • Bei der Vermittlung der Information verwenden die Journalisten in den Polizeiberichten meistens das Verb mitteilen (StN – 46,75 %; BMp – 44,44 %). Mit diesem Verb des Mitteilens wird oft auf einen Informationssender Polizei und nur... [der volle Text, siehe weiter] / Šio bakalauro darbo tema – „Pragmatinė ir morfologinė pranešimo veiksmažodžių analizė (pagal policijos pranešimų pavyzdžius). Tyrimo tikslas – iš Vokietijos laikraščių Stuttgarter Nachrichten (StN) (liet. Štutgarto Naujienos) ir Berliner Morgenpost (BMp) (liet. Rytinis Berlyno paštas) išrinktų policijos pranešimų, suskirstytų į grupes pagal suteikiamą informaciją, ir juose rastų pranešimo veiksmažodžių analizė, remiantis pragmatiniu bei morfologiniu aspektais. Iš viso buvo rasta 220 policijos pranešimų, kiekviename laikraštyje po 110. Šiuose pranešimuose 313 kartų aptikti pranešimo veiksmažodžiai. Vartodami kiekvieną iš šių veiksmažodžių žurnalistai suteikia tam tikrą informaciją apie įvykio priežastis, pasekmes, aplinkybes ir pan. skaitytojui. Dažniausiai policijos pranešimuose buvo aptinkami veiksmažodžiai: mitteilen (liet. pranešti), sagen (liet. sakyti), alarmieren (liet. iškviesti pagal aliarmą), berichten (liet. pranešti, duoti žinią), melden (liet. pranešti, paskelbti), ankündigen (liet. paskelbti, pranešti), aussagen (liet. pasakyti, pareikšti) ir kt. (žr. psl. 16). Kiekvienu iš šių veiksmažodžiųžurnalistai nusako informacijos apie įvykį skleidėją, kuris pranešimuose dažnai įvardijamas kaip policijos ar kita teisėtvarkai priklausanti institucija. Tačiau galima rasti ir tokių pranešimų, kuomet policininkai tampa informacijos gavėjais, pavyzdžiui, veiksmažodžiu alarmieren visuomet nusakoma, jog gyventojai pranešė policijai apie nusikalstamą veiką ar nelaimingą... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / Pragmatical and morphological analysis of the Verbs Related to Giving News (according to examples of the police announcments).

This study assesses the scope of the Crosslinguistic Influence (CLI) hypothesis’ predictions with regard to early bilingual acquisition. To this end, we analyze longitudinal corpus data from four bilinguals attesting the acquisition of subjecthood (null versus overt; preverbal versus postverbal) and the pragmatic adequacy of early null and overt subjects in a null-subject language (i.e., Spanish) in combination with a language differing in its pro-drop parameter setting (i.e., English). Our results indicate that CLI barely affects the development of subjects in the null-subject language at the initial stages, namely at the outset of null and overt subjects, and in turn support the Separate Development Hypothesis. Our bilingual cohort patterns with their Spanish-acquiring monolingual peer in that both groups display comparable proportions of null subjects as well as acquisitional trajectories of null and overt subjects at the early stages of acquisition. Much like monolinguals, bilinguals begin to produce preverbal and postverbal subjects concurrently. The bilingual children and the monolingual child of this study actually produce extremely high rates of pragmatically appropriate covert and overt subjects, which are for the most part target-like from the start, thus pointing to the absence of CLI effects. In light of monolingual and bilingual data, the paper also revisits the hotly debated issue of the ‘no overt subject’ stage of Grinstead (1998, et seq.), its existence in child Spanish being questionable.

Discutimos nesta pesquisa o uso dos elementos de Cortesia, em especifico, a atenuação, entendida como categoria pragmática que afeta as relações interpessoais enquanto atividade linguística (redução do dito e do dizer) e social (aproximação ou não distanciamento do outro). Enfatizando estes aspectos, o trabalho tem como objetivo comparar o emprego de procedimentos linguísticos de atenuação na produção de atos diretivos e respostas não preferidas (atos de fala não corteses), por estudantes universitários das cidades de São Paulo (Brasil) e Córdoba (Argentina). Ainda, explicar as diferenças tendo como base os conceitos de sociedades de aproximação e distanciamento (HAVERKATE, 2004 e BRIZ, 2007) e analisar as diferenças nas interpretações que realizaram os estudantes da cidade argentina dos enunciados formulados pelos paulistanos. Nesta investigação, formulou-se e aplicou-se questionário de coleta de dados denominado testes sociais no qual apareceram situações de interação no ambiente de trabalho e da faculdade. No processo analítico deste fenômeno, usamos o método comparativo salientando as relações quantitativas e qualitativas dos enunciados estabelecidos pelos paulistanos e cordobeses, analisando dois tópicos, a comparação dos procedimentos de atenuação empregados; e a interpretação dos enunciados (dos estudantes paulistanos) feita pelos alunos de Córdoba. Como resultado, verificamos o uso acentuado de procedimentos de atenuação por parte dos paulistanos, causando interpretações díspares por parte dos cordobeses. / Discussed in this study the use of Courtesy elements in specific, attenuation, understood as a pragmatic category that affects interpersonal relationships as linguistic activity (reduction of said and say) and social (approximation or not distancing from another). Emphasizing these aspects, the study aims to compare the use of linguistic attenuation procedures in the production of directive acts and not preferred answers (speech acts not polite), for university students from São Paulo (Brazil) and Córdoba (Argentina). Also explain the differences based on the concepts of proximity and distance in social interactions (HAVERKATE, 1994 and BRIZ, 2007) and analyze the differences in interpretations that made by students of Córdoba city from statements made by students of São Paulo. In this investigation, it is formulated and applied data collection questionnaire called social tests in which appeared interaction situations in the workplace and college. In the analytical process of this phenomenon, we use the comparative method emphasizing the quantitative and qualitative relationships of statements established by Paulistanos and Cordobeses, analyzing two topics, the comparison of attenuation procedures used and the interpretation of these statements (of São Paulo students) made by students of Cordoba. As a result, we see the vast use of mitigation procedures on the part of São Paulo, causing differing interpretations by the students of Córdoba.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-03-04T21:01:06Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 23 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Este trabalho gira em torno de três grandes temas da história da filosofia: o sujeito, a compreensão e a linguagem. O objetivo principal é apresentar a importância da hermenêutica na constituição do sujeito não só no tocante à interpretação do “mundo do texto”, mas também em uma proposta ética renovada na qual o si-mesmo é gerado (constantemente) pela dialética entre a identidade ipse (outro) e a identidade idem (mesmo). O sujeito ricoeuriano se diferencia do “eu”, do ego, da consciência; é o “si” reflexivo de todas as pessoas. Esse “si”, que no Cogito cartesiano é uma verdade imediata, em Ricoeur, não é um dado, mas uma tarefa, uma dupla tarefa ética e hermenêutica. O texto, a escrita, a narrativa, são lugares onde se realiza a compreensão de si, do mundo e dos outros através da desconstrução, da perda do “eu”, e de sua reconstrução em um outro nível de maturação e aprimoramento da identidade de si. Autores como Wittgenstein, Heidegger e Gadamer ocuparam lugar de destaque nesse cenário possibilitando que a f / This paper deals with three big themes in the history of philosophy: the subject, the comprehension and the language. The main aim is to present the importance of hermeneutics in the subjectivity constitution not only about the interpretation of the “world of the text”, but also in an ethical renewed proposal in which the me-myself is generated (constantly) by the dialectic between the ipse identity (self) and the idem identity (same). The Ricoeur subject differentiates from I, from ego, from conscience; it is the itself reflexive of all people. This itself, that in Cogito is a truth immediate, in Ricoeur, it is not data, but a task, a double ethical and hermeneutics task. The text, the writing, the narrative are places where the comprehension of itself, of the world and the others through deconstruction, of the loss of “I”, and of its reconstruction in another level of maturation and refinement of the itself identity happens.Authors such as Wittgenstein, Heidegger and Gadamer had an outstanding place in this

Aim PRECIS (PRagmatic Explanatory Continuum Indicator Summaries 2009) is a tool with a simple wheel format that trialists can use when designing their trials to improve the applicability of results but users highlighted problems. The aim of the study was to produce an improved and validated version of PRECIS, called PRECIS-2 and test this tool out with trial teams designing primary care trials. Methods Brainstorming and a 2-round Delphi survey of authors who cited PRECIS plus user-testing of candidate PRECIS-2 models was followed by validity and reliability testing of the most promising PRECIS-2 candidate using a sample of 15 trials rated by 19 different trialists. The validated PRECIS-2 tool was then used to consider the risk of bias (internal validity) and estimates of treatment effect of a matched set of explanatory (ideal conditions) and pragmatic (real world) trials. The PRECIS-2 website was also created with a database of pragmatic trials and a toolkit for trial groups. This was tested out at the Pragmatic Clinical Trials Unit (PCTU) in London with trial teams designing primary care trials. Results Forty-two people responded to the Delphi and highlighted scoring, domain choice, and tool format as issues. An expert panel of 14 in Toronto provided the basis for a PRECIS-2 model that was then user tested by 19 other methodologists and trialists. After 13 iterations, a PRECIS-2 model with 9 domains (i.e. Eligibility, Recruitment, Setting, Organisation, Flexibility Delivery, Flexibility Adherence, Follow up, Primary Outcome, Primary Analysis) was tested for validity and reliability. Inter-rater reliability was generally good, with eight of nine domains having an ICC over 0.65. Discriminant validity was reasonable for all domains, though with wide confidence intervals. Matching trials taking pragmatic (‘real world’) and explanatory (‘ideal world’) approaches was challenging but we found no indication that a pragmatic approach compromises internal validity. We were unable to extract sufficient information for a planned analysis of estimates of treatment effect. At the PCTU, the tool highlighted differences in opinion with trial team members and demonstrated convergence of opinion following discussion. There was acknowledgment that scoring of PRECIS-2 domains assisted trials teams in considering the intended audience and creation of trials relevant to practice. Useful feedback was obtained to improve the PRECIS-2 tool software for users. Conclusions PRECIS was improved by the addition of scoring and additional domains after consultation with over 80 international trialists. We have a validated PRECIS-2, in the visually appealing wheel format with 9 spokes, which is being made available through an increasingly accessed website. Work at the PCTU improved the usability of the PRECIS-2 website and demonstrated that the tool increases transparency in trial design and assists trialists in considering applicability of trial results. More matching work on the impact of design approaches on effect size is needed, and further data to support the risk of bias results would be valuable.

abstract: Yaʕni ‘lit. he/it signifies/means/intends’ is an arising linguistic and discourse-pragmatic phenomenon in many varieties and speech situations of spoken Arabic. Yet, the few scholarly investigations yaʕni has received come from restricted and limited contexts of language use. The primary aims of this dissertation were to, first, expand and broaden research on Arabic yaʕni into novel contexts of language use and to, second, explore the linguistic and the discourse-pragmatic functions of yaʕni. Therefore, the data used for this dissertation were collected, selected, and analyzed from a sample of spoken data brought from two episodes of a Saudi sports TV show Alkurah Tatakallam ‘lit. the ball speaks.’ The analytical procedures and discussions showed that yaʕni had the following types of linguistic and discourse-pragmatic functions: as (a) a verb, (b) elaboration and turn expansion, (c) repair organization, (d) managing the turn-taking system, (e) alleviation and hedging, (f) marking concessive/contrastive relations, and (g) emphatic yaʕni. The discussions seemed to suggest the gradual solidification of three views: First, there is a suggestion that the categorical status ranging from verb yaʕni to the discourse marker yaʕni can be understood in terms of scalarity, gradience, and prototypicality. Second, there is another suggestion that gradations can also be located between the discourse-pragmatic functions of yaʕni. Third, there is a suggestion that, synchronically and diachronically, yaʕni as a form has been wildly drifting from its categorical verb status, lexical source, propositional meaning, and even its discourse-pragmatic markerhood. The analysis, discussions, and suggestions invoked the idea of bridging context(s) related to the categorical status and the discourse-pragmatic functions of yaʕni. This categorical status of yaʕni puts the binary distinction between conceptual meaning and procedural meaning of relevance theory, and the studies of yaʕni following such a binary distinction, into question since this distinction seemed blurry. The bridging context(s) seemed to support the gradualness and the directionality of the evolution of DMs. Therefore, the categorical and discourse-pragmatic behavior of yaʕni seems to have support from the hypothesis and theories such as grammaticalization and pragmaticalization. It seems also that the historical development of yaʕni can be discussed in terms of the hypothesis and theories of idiomaticization and phraseology. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Linguistics and Applied Linguistics 2018

O objetivo deste trabalho é a análise dos elementos de cortesia e atenuação no Português falado na região de São José do Rio Preto e no Espanhol falado na região de Málaga. Os corpora analisados foram obtidos por meio de entrevistas semidirigidas e fazem parte do Projeto ALIP Amostra Linguística do Interior Paulista, o brasileiro, e PRESEEA - Proyecto para el Estudio Sociolingüístico del Español de España y América, o espanhol. Analisamos um total de 24 entrevistas, sendo 12 de nível médio e 12 de superior, seis em cada idioma, divididas igualmente entre falantes do sexo feminino e do sexo masculino. Os falantes de nível médio tinham idades entre 25 e 45 anos, enquanto que a faixa etária entre os de nível superior era entre 50 e 70 anos. Partindo da teoria pragmática dos Atos de Fala e de estudos mais recentes sobre cortesia e atenuação de teóricos como Leech (2007), Bravo (2001, 2004, 2005), Kerbrat-Orecchioni (2004, 2005, 2006), entre outros, analisamos tanto a fala dos entrevistadores quanto a dos informantes. A partir da fala dos entrevistadores, pudemos observar como as perguntas, as solicitações de informações eram elaboradas em ambos os idiomas. Tal análise possibilitou a verificação de como o entrevistador se posicionava e quais eram as estratégias utilizadas verbos no imperativo, enunciados diretos, uso de atos de preparação ou verbos que visavam a proteger a face do informante. Já a análise da fala dos informantes objetivou a averiguação do uso de outras estratégias, cuja intenção era a defesa pessoal ou de terceiros, protegendo sua própria face ou a do entrevistador. Entre essas estratégias citamos a desfocalização do eu, a proteção à própria face ou à do outro, o uso de elementos atenuadores no momento de expressar opiniões, entre outras. Ao longo de nossa análise investigamos também o posicionamento de cada entrevista no eixo de solidariedade ou poder de acordo com a teoria de Brown e Gilman (1960). Para isso, foi necessário o estudo das formas de tratamento empregadas, bem como o uso ou não de formas nominais. Os resultados obtidos, dentro dos corpora estudados, mostram que a Língua Espanhola é uma língua de mais aproximação com o interlocutor, enquanto que a Língua Portuguesa denota maior distância. Observou-se ainda que determinados elementos como o uso de um tratamento mais formal no caso da Língua Portuguesa se caracteriza mais como uma estratégia conversacional do que uma distância social. / The present paper aims at the analysis of the politeness and attenuation elements in both the Portuguese spoken in São José do Rio Preto region and in the Spanish spoken in Malaga region. The studied corpora were obtained by means of partially guided interviews and are part of the ALIP Project (São Paulo\'s Countryside Linguistic Sampling), the Brazilian one, and the PRESEEA ( Project for the Sociolinguistic Study of the Spanish Spoken in Spain and America), the Spanish one. A total of 24 interviews were analysed, being 12 of those on an average level and the other 12 on a superior one, six in each language, equally divided into male and female speakers. The average level speakers range aged from 25 to 45 whereas the superior level ranged from 50 to 70. Considering the pragmatic theory of Speech Acts and other more recent studies on politeness and attenuation by theorists such as Leech (2007), Bravo (2001, 2004, 2005), Kerbrat-Orecchioni (2004, 2005, 2006), among others, both interviewers\' and interviewees\' speeches were analysed. From the interviewers\' speeches it was possible to observe how the questions, the information required, were built up in both languages. Such an analysis made possible verifying how the interviewer was positioned as well as which strategies were used: verbs in imperative, direct enunciations, preparation acts usage or verbs aiming at protecting the informer\'s face. Yet the informers\' speech analysis aimed at the inquiry of other strategies usage being the intention of such the personal or third parties\' defense, proctecting oneself\'s face or the interviewer\'s one. Among these strategies we mention defocusing the self, protecting oneself\'s own face or the other\'s one, attenuating elements usage when expressing opinions, among others. Throughout our analysis we investigated also the positioning of each interview coming to the axis solidarity or power according to Brown and Gilman\'s theory (1960). For such, it was made necessary the study of the treatment forms applied as well as the use or not of noun forms. The achieved results in the studied corpora showed that the Spanish language proves to be a language of more approximation coming to the interlocutor whereas the Portuguese language denotes more distance. It could also be noticed that certain elements such as the use of a more formal treatment coming to the Portuguese language are characterized more as a conversational strategy than as a social distance element.