The social norms concept provides a fresh basis for thinking about how public health policies and campaigns impact health behaviour. Social norms offer much promise to the field of public health, nonetheless, the potential role of norms in changing health behaviour have not been fully embraced. This thesis demonstrates that one of the mechanisms by which national level policies (e.g. tobacco control) can promote health behaviour change, such as an increase in quit intentions, is by making smoking less normative and an undesirable behaviour. This study is vital as it provides a broad conceptualization of tobacco denormalisation and shows how its reasoning is able to influence normative beliefs and smoking behaviour. A review of literature was carried out to establish the generic origins of denormalisation as well as demonstrate that this approach (i.e. social norms) has been widely adopted in schools and college settings to influence health behaviour. As a broader perspective of this thinking was imperative to address public health issues at a societal level, tobacco control was employed to investigate how individual polices influence behaviour and normative beliefs. The research methodology used was pluralistic in nature, given that the majority of past tobacco control policy studies employed either quantitative or qualitative methods. Thus adopting both methods a richer amount of data would be obtained in order to generate an improved understanding of how public policy affects norms and smoking behaviour. To empirically examine the relationship between public policy, social norms and smoking behaviour a broad conceptualization was developed to investigate the normative pathways between national level tobacco policy effects on youth and adults’ smoking behaviour. Quantitative results from the longitudinal study, the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Scotland/UK survey, indicate that a comprehensive smoke-free law that covers, without exception, an entire nation (i.e. Scotland) has increased adult smokers’ perceived social unacceptability of smoking, to some extent higher in Scotland than rest of the UK which, in turn, is associated with quit intentions at follow-up, in both countries. The examination of data from the UK Youth Tobacco Policy Study (YTPS) also demonstrated that the influence of tobacco marketing awareness on adolescents’ smoking intentions is mediated by perceived norms. Prior to the enactment of the UK Tobacco Advertising and Promotion Act (TAPA), higher levels of awareness of tobacco advertising and promotion were independently associated with higher levels of perceived sibling approval which, in turn, were positively related to smoking intentions. Independent paths from perceived smoking prevalence and benefits fully mediated the effects of advertising and promotion awareness on intentions, during and after the enactment of the TAPA. Results from the qualitative study generally supported the quantitative findings and provided new insights into how adolescents’ normative beliefs and smoking behaviour are influenced by tobacco control policies. The qualitative group discussion suggests that smoke-free legislation and anti-smoking ads influence perceptions of prevalence, acceptability and smoking behaviour. A number of theoretical implications were presented, including the belief that social norms campaigns and interventions must be focal and salient in individuals’ consciousness so as to effect the desired behaviour change. A theoretical framework of the various normative mechanisms should consequently be integrated into tobacco control policies and norm-based interventions to work in a synergistic manner to influence health-related behaviour. Practical implications of this conceptualization include the view that, instead of public health interventions focusing on conventional approaches (for example, scare tactics), an appropriate strategy would be to incorporate specific information that corrects normative misperceptions and ambiguities among referent populations at individual and societal levels, with consequential normative and health behaviour change. It is recommended that future research employing tobacco industry perceptions and possibly a descriptive norm as additional normative mediators, aside from unacceptability, would be of value to examine whether smoke-free legislation influences quitting partly via changing favourable tobacco industry perceptions, social acceptability of smoking and perceived prevalence of smoking. To sum up, the findings demonstrate that societal level policy measures such as smoke-free legislation and the TAPA are critical elements of a comprehensive tobacco control program that can significantly influence adult smokers’ quit intentions and reduce adolescents’ smoking intentions respectively, by signifying smoking to be less normative and to be socially unacceptable.

Det övergripande syftet med den här avhandlingen har varit att, inom området läkemedelsinformatik, studera utvecklingen av elektroniska stöd inom läkemedelsförskrivning; för klinisk praxis, uppföljning och forskning. Under århundraden har det handskrivna receptet varit det sätt, med vilket läkare förmedlat sina läkemedelsordinationer till apotekare, vilket också för patienten blivit en informationskälla för hur läkemedel ska användas för att göra bästa nytta. Nu genomgår receptet en förändring från pappersbaserat till elektroniskt meddelande och att anpassa en traditionell process till en ny elektronisk era innebär både möjligheter och utmaningar. Studierna som ingår i avhandlingen har visat att exponeringen av förskrivna läkemedel i en allmän befolkning har ökat under de senaste tre decennierna. Risken för potentiella interaktioner mellan läkemedel, varmed avses den risk som finns att olika läkemedel kan påverka varandras effekter och biverkningar, har också visat sig öka starkt desto fler läkemedel som används av en individ. Denna ökade samtidiga användning av flera olika läkemedel, så kallad polyfarmaci, medför att det finns en större anledning för förskrivare och farmacevter att uppmärksamma risken för potentiella interaktioner mellan läkemedel. De nyinrättade nationella receptregistren över uthämtad receptförskriven medicin bör användas bland annat för att upptäcka potentiella läkemedelsinteraktioner, såväl i vårdens utövning som inom läkemedelsepidemiologisk forskning. Den svenska läkemedelsförteckningen, som omfattar information om uthämtade receptförskrivna läkemedel för huvuddelen av den svenska befolkningen, bedöms ha en stor klinisk potential. Den enskilde individens historiska information om uthämtade läkemedel är tillgänglig för individen på Internet med hjälp av e-legitimation; även förskrivare och farmacevter på apotek kan ta del av informationen med den enskildes samtycke. Brist på tillgång till enhetliga och säkra autenticeringsmetoder inom hälso- och sjukvården kan dock fördröja tillgången på individuell läkemedelsinformation för förskrivare. I och med att de flesta recepten i Sverige nu skrivs och överförs elektroniskt är det viktigt att kvalitetsmässiga aspekter tas tillvara så att en iakttagen ökad risk för receptförskrivningsfel inte överförs i informationskedjan. Avhandlingens slutsats är att e-förskrivning, med kommunikation och användning av lagrad information om receptexpeditioner, möjliggör att läkemedelsbehandling som process kan följas och studeras på ett helt nytt / The thesis aimed to study the developments, in the area of pharmacoinformatics, of the electronic prescribing and dispensing processes of drugs - in medical praxis, follow-up, and research. For hundreds of years, the written prescription has been the method of choice for physicians to communicate decisions on drug therapy and for pharmacists to dispense medication. Successively the prescription has also become a source of information for the patient about how to use the medication to maximize its benefit. Currently, the medical prescription is at a transitional stage between paper and web, and to adapt a traditional process to the new electronic era offers both opportunities and challenges The studies in the thesis have shown that the exposure of prescribed drugs in the general population has increased considerably over three decades. The risk of receiving potentially interacting drugs was also strongly correlated to the concomitant use of multiple drugs, polypharmacy. The pronounced increase in polypharmacy over time constitutes a growing reason for prescribers and pharmacists to be aware of drug interactions. Still, there were relatively few severe potential drug interactions. Recently established national prescription registers should be evaluated for drug interaction vigilance, both clinically and epidemiologically. The Swedish National Pharmacy Register provides prescription dispensing information for the majority of the population. The medication history in the register may be accessed online to improve drug utilization, by registered individuals, prescribers, and pharmacists in a safe and secure way. Lack of widespread secure digital signatures in healthcare may delay general availability. With a relatively high prevalence of dispensed drugs in the population, the National Pharmacy Register seems justified in evaluating individual medication history. With a majority of prescriptions transferred as ePrescriptions, the detected increased risk for prescription errors warrants quality improvement, if the full potential of ePrescriptions is to be fulfilled. The main conclusion of the studies was that ePrescribing with communication of prescribed drug information, storing and retrieving dispensed drug information, offers new opportunities for clinical and scientific

Change in any form can become painful if individuals are not equipped with the necessary coping mechanisms. The transformation in the educational arena over the last few years has resulted in increased stress levels for school principals. This study investigates the role and impact of a stress intervention programme, the Art of Living workshop, using controlled breathing techniques, on the functioning of primary school principals in the Phoenix Circuit, Durban. A combined quantitative and qualitative research approach employing structured questionnaires and semi-structured individual interviews was used to compare the principals’ stress levels before and after the stress intervention programme. The findings revealed that the intervention programme was successful in reducing principals’ stress levels. A lack of resources, increased workloads, learner discipline, educator attitudes, indifferent parents and resolving conflicts created stress for principals. Benefits of the Art of Living workshop included the ability to remain calm and relaxed; and improved sleep patterns, increased energy levels and improved human relation skills. / Educational Leadership and Management / MED (ED MNG)

INTRODUÇÃO: No Brasil, mais de 13700 novos casos de aids são registrados em mulheres anualmente, principalmente por transmissão sexual. Na última década, se ampliaram as opções de métodos de prevenção do HIV disponíveis no país baseados no uso profilático de medicamentos antirretrovirais (ARV) por pessoas expostas ao vírus. Questiona-se como dimensões psicossociais, culturais e programáticas da prevenção do HIV interferirão no uso dessas tecnologias. Esta tese busca compreender o processo de decisão e a experiência de uso da profilaxia pós-exposição (PEP sexual) ao HIV por mulheres que buscaram este método preventivo em serviços do Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS). MÉTODOS: Os dados foram coletados como parte de um ensaio clínico pragmático intitulado Estudo Combina!, realizado em serviços de saúde especializados em HIV/Aids localizados em São Paulo, Fortaleza, Ribeirão Preto, Porto Alegre e Curitiba. Foram realizadas observações diretas da oferta da PEP sexual e entrevistas semiestruturadas com mulheres que buscaram a profilaxia nos serviços. A análise dos dados foi guiada por princípios hermenêutico-dialéticos, à luz das teorias construcionistas da sexualidade articuladas ao quadro conceitual da vulnerabilidade e dos direitos humanos (V&DH). As unidades de análise foram as cenas sexuais e as dinâmicas do Cuidado nos serviços de saúde. RESULTADOS: Dezessete mulheres aceitaram participar voluntariamente do estudo. As entrevistadas tinham experiência prévia de uso de preservativo e apenas duas não haviam se protegido nas cenas sexuais que as levaram à PEP. Para as demais, a busca resultou de falha do preservativo em relações que aconteceram em cenários de sexo casual, de trabalho sexual ou de relações sorodiferentes. Nos dois primeiros cenários, a falta intimidade e a indiferença dos parceiros frente ao acidente contribuíram para a decisão das mulheres de buscarem a PEP e contrastaram com a intimidade e a solidariedade que caracterizaram as interações nos cenários de sorodiferença. Quatro entrevistadas conheciam a profilaxia antes do acidente, informadas principalmente por pessoas vivendo com HIV/aids (PVHA), serviços de saúde, profissionais do sexo e internet. Conhecer e usar PEP sexual não resultou na intenção de substituir o uso do preservativo pela profilaxia. As entrevistadas valorizaram a possibilidade de acessar um método eficaz em serviços públicos de saúde, onde se sentiram acolhidas e respeitadas. Aderir ao tratamento profilático exigiu superar efeitos adversos e consequências psicossociais de tomar os ARV, sobretudo o medo de ser discriminada como uma PVHA, que fez com que as entrevistadas mantivessem o uso da PEP sexual em segredo. CONCLUSÕES: Nos diferentes cenários, as cenas sexuais que levaram à PEP foram atravessadas por scripts de gênero e estigmas da sexualidade, que estruturaram a dinâmica das negociações sexuais e as reações das entrevistadas e de seus parceiros frente aos acidentes com o preservativo. O estigma da aids é expressivo nesses cenários que estruturam as experiências de uso da PEP sexual, contribuindo para mantê-la pouco conhecida e dificultando seu uso no cotidiano. Sugerem-se investimentos na divulgação da disponibilidade da PEP sexual no SUS, no aprimoramento da qualificação dos serviços com base no referencial do Cuidado e em intervenções estruturais para mitigar o estigma da aids e a desigualdade de gênero, a fim de promover e proteger os direitos humanos das mulheres, cuja violação produz cenários de maior vulnerabilidade para o HIV / INTRODUCTION: In Brazil, more than 13,700 new cases of AIDS are registered among women annually, due mainly to sexual transmission. In the last decade, the availability of HIV prevention methods based on the prophylactic use of antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) by people exposed to the virus have increased in the country. Questions are raised regarding how psychosocial, cultural and programmatic dimensions of HIV prevention will interfere in the use of these technologies. This thesis aims to understand the decision making process and the experience of using post-exposure prophylaxis after sexual exposure to HIV (nPEP) by women who sought this preventive method in the Brazilian Health System (SUS). METHODS: Data were collected as part of a pragmatic clinical trial entitled Combina! Study, conducted in HIV/AIDS specialized health facilities located in São Paulo, Porto Alegre, Fortaleza, Ribeirão Preto and Curitiba. Direct observations of nPEP services and semi-structured interviews with women seeking the prophylaxis in the facilities were performed. Data analysis was guided by hermeneutic-dialectical principles, oriented by social constructionism theories of sexuality, articulated to the conceptual framework of vulnerability and human rights (V&DH). The units of analysis were the sexual scenes and the dynamics of Care in the health services. RESULTS: Seventeen women voluntarily agreed to participate in the study. Interviewees had previous experience with condoms, and only two had not protected themselves in the sexual scenes that led them to nPEP. For the others, the search resulted from condom failure during sexual intercourses that happened in scenarios of casual sex, sex work or serodifferent relationships. In the first two scenarios, the lack of intimacy with the partners and their indifference to the accident contributed to the women\'s decision to seek nPEP, contrasting with the intimacy and solidarity that characterized the interactions in the serodifference scenarios. Four interviewees were aware of the prophylaxis prior to the accident, mainly informed by people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA), health services, sex workers and the Internet. Knowing and using nPEP did not result in the intention to replace condom use with the prophylaxis. The interviewees valued the possibility of accessing an effective prevention method in public health services, where they felt welcomed and respected. Adhering to nPEP required overcoming adverse effects and psychosocial consequences of taking ARVs, especially the fear of being discriminated against as a PLWHA, which made the interviewees keep the use of nPEP in secret. CONCLUSIONS: In the different scenarios, the sexual scenes that led to the nPEP were crossed by gender scripts and stigmas of sexuality, which structured the sexual negotiation dynamics and the reactions of the interviewees and of their partners towards the accidents with the condom. The stigma of AIDS is expressive in these scenarios that structure the experiences of using nPEP, contributing to keep it little known and making its use difficult in daily life. We suggest investments to be made in publicizing the availability of nPEP in the SUS, in improving qualification of nPEP services based on the framework of Care and in structural interventions to mitigate AIDS stigma and gender inequality in order to promote and protect women\'s human rights, which violation produces scenarios of higher vulnerability to HIV

Vinte e seis pacientes com cardiomiopatia hipertrófica e fatores de risco de morte súbita, foram submetidos a implante de cardioversor-desfibrilador implantável de dupla-câmara, com seguimento médio de 19 meses. Observou-se quatro choques em arritmias letais, 4 pacientes apresentaram TVNS e 5 taquiarritmias supraventriculares. Ocorreu um óbito.Conclusões: Observamos: TPSV em 19,2%; TVNS em 15,4% e TVS/FV em 15,4%. Nenhuma variável clínica ou demográfica, discriminou o comportamento clínico ou funcional pós-implante de CDI; a recorrência de síncope pós implante de CDI, não se associou à presença de eventos arrítmicos e a hipertrofia maior que 30 mm se associou à choque precoce do CDI (p=0,003). / During 19 months of average follow-up period, we followed 26 patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and high risk for sudden death, all treated by dual chamber implantable cardioverter-defibrillator. 4 patients had received appropriate ICD discharge, 4 patients with NSVT and 5 supraventricular arrhythmias. One death had occurred. Conclusions: we observed: supraventricular arrhythmias in 19,2%; NSVT in 15,4% and VT/VF in 15,4%. The clinical or demographic outcomes did not suggest any clinical or functional results after ICD implantation; syncope may occur after ICD implantation and no arrhythmias recordered by intracardiac electrograms and left-ventricular-wall thickness greater than 30 mm is associated with early ICD shocks (p=0,003).

Introdução: A exposição ocupacional ao ruído tem sido um tema estudado para diferentes ocupações. Na atividade de teleatendimento também tem sido referido como um fator de risco com repercussões à saúde. Objetivo: Identificar a presença de perdas auditivas em operadores de teleatendimento da central de reservas de uma empresa aérea. Métodos: Realizado estudo epidemiológico transversal e longitudinal. O estudo transversal compreendeu os últimos audiogramas de 589 operadores distribuídos de acordo com o sexo, faixa etária (18 a 30, 31 a 43, mais de 44 anos), e tempo na função (01 a 35, 36 e 60, mais 61 meses). Foram avaliados os audiogramas de 387 operadores que estavam na empresa há mais de 3 anos, através de um estudo longitudinal, comparando os audiogramas referenciais e finais no período de 1999 a 2006. Resultados: Identificou-se o predomínio do sexo feminino, prevalência de perdas auditivas de 6,0% com 3,1% de PAIR e 2,9% por outras causas. Para as perdas auditivas sexo não se mostrou um fator de risco significativo (p>0,05). Observa-se um risco maior para as faixas etárias de 31 a 43 e de 41 a 55 anos de idade e tempo de serviço maior de 61 meses com chance de 3,35 (IC95%: 1,31 8,57) quando comparados com o tempo de serviço menor do que 36 meses. A comparação entre as médias mostrou um aumento significante dos limiares com exceção da freqüência de 1K na orelha direita. Conclusões: Operadores de teleatendimento na empresa estudada apresentaram rebaixamento dos limiares auditivos em todas as freqüências. A exposição ocupacional por ruído ambiental e uso de headset dos operadores de teleatendimento necessita de estudos longitudinais detalhados para definição das repercussões auditivas e extra-auditivas / Introduction: Occupational noise exposure has been a subject studied for various occupations. At call centers, it has also been referred to as a healthhazardous risk factor. Aim: Identify the presence of hearing loss in operators of an airline company call center. Methodology: Cross-section and longitudinal epistemological study has been carried out. The cross-section study considered the latest audiograms of 589 operators divided according to gender, age (18 to 30, 31 to 43, over 44), and employment time (01 to 35, 36 to 60, over 61 months). The longitudinal study considered the audiograms of 387 operators who have been with the company for over 3 years, comparing referencial and final audiograms of the period between 1999 and 2006. Results: A predominance of 6.0% hearing loss, with 3.1% of NIHL and 2.9% by other causes, has been noticed in females. For hearing losses, gender has not turned out to be a significant risk factor (p>0.05). There is a greater risk for ages between 31 and 43, and 41 and 55, having been with the company for over 61 months, of 3.35 (IC95%: 1.31 - 8.57) when compared to those who have been with the company for less than 36 months. The comparison between the averages has shown a significant rise of threshold with the exception of 1K frequency in the right ear. Conclusions: Call center operators in the airline company at stake have shown lowering of hearing threshold in all frequencies. Noise-induced occupational exposure and the use of headsets by call center operators demand further, more detailed longitudinal studies to define the hearing and extra-hearing repercussions

A perspectiva dos fisioterapeutas que desenvolvem programas de educação postural com crianças bem jovens é que essas medidas de prevenção primária possam reduzir, a longo prazo a prevalência de dores nas costas.Esse estudo experimental, verificou os efeitos da educação postural comparando duas estratégias educacionais utilizando-se da pedagogia de uma história em quadrinhos (HQ) na retenção de informações desses hábitos posturais e de um circuito demonstrativo (CD), onde as crianças vivenciavam cada postura correta e incorreta. O programa de educação postural foi aplicado em três sessões educativas em escolares das 2ª e 3º séries, com idades entre 7-11 anos, de uma Escola Municipal, no Estado de São Paulo. A amostra consistiu de 80 crianças nos grupos HQ e CD. As sessões tiveram a duração de uma hora e serviram para transmitir noções básicas sobre: anatomia, biomecânica e fisiopatologia de dores na coluna vertebral e hábitos posturais corretos nas seguintes situações: postura sentada, postura em pé, postura deitada, transporte de mochila, técnica de levantamento e transferência de objetos. O conhecimento dos hábitos posturais foi verificado por intermédio de questionários aplicados antes do início do programa e após um período de 6 meses do término da pesquisa. Os resultados do estudo indicaram que para todas as variáveis estudadas não foram detectadas diferenças no aprendizado e memorização dos hábitos posturais corretos em ambos os sexos que se submeteram às duas metodologias de ensino, exceto no jeito de dormir, onde o índice de aumento das respostas corretas foi de 23% para o Circuito, enquanto o HQ apresentou apenas 7% / OBJECTIVE: This experimental study compared two educational strategies using the pedagogy of a comic book story (HQ) and a demonstration circuit (CD), to teach instructions for correct posture habits. METHOD: 80 students from the 2nd and 3rd grades of an elementary school in São Paulo city were studied using a questionnaire before and after the education program, and also six months after the end of the research, to assess the retention of the correct habits. RESULTS: The correct rates after the instructions increased 90% for both education strategies, except for the sleeping posture, which had more correct responses in the CD education practice. CONCLUSION: In the comparison between the comic book story and the demonstration circuit education strategies, both were effective in the memorization of correct postural habits

Embora o tratamento anti-retroviral (HAART highly active antiretroviral therapy) tenha reduzido a morbi-mortalidade da AIDS, ele está associado a distúrbios metabólicos e aumento do perfil de risco cardiovascular. Os escores de risco cardiovascular são freqüentemente usados para direcionar os programas de intervenções na redução do risco cardiovascular. O objetivo deste estudo é analisar o efeito de um programa de prevenção primária sobre o risco cardiovascular estimado por três diferentes escores de risco cardiovascular. Analisamos prospectivamente 87 pacientes HIV+ encaminhados ambulatório de cardiologia, com risco cardiovascular elevado. Foram aplicados três escores de risco cardiovascular: Framingham (FR), PROCAM (PR) e ATP III do NCEP (ATP-III) em 4 etapas: Inicial e trinta dias, três meses e seis meses após intervenção por meio de um programa de prevenção. Adotamos para este estudo o conceito de baixo risco os indivíduos que apresentaram valores dos escores abaixo de 10%, para as complicações cardiovasculares nos próximos 10 anos, e risco elevado se os valores dos escores fossem acima de 10%. Todos os pacientes receberam orientações para adoção de estilo de vida saudável (atividade física, combate ao tabagismo, uso de alimentos saudáveis) e terapêutica farmacológica, quando indicado (hipolipemiantes e anti-hipertensivos). A nossa população teve como média das idades 52 anos, 92% eram do sexo masculino, 39,1% tabagistas, 70,1% com hipertensão arterial sistêmica e 18,4% com diabetes mellitus. Todos os pacientes usaram HAART, e 56,3% faziam uso dos inibidores de protease, e nenhum paciente teve sua terapia trocada (switched). O perfil lipídico analisado na fase inicial apresentou os seguintes valores: triglicérides = 298,70 mg/dL ± 242,30 , colesterol total = 224,6 mg/dL ± 47,6 , LDL-colesterol = 129,50 mg/dL ± 44,50 , HDL-colesterol = 43,10 mg/dL ± 12,60. Seis meses após intervenção o perfil lipídico apresentou as seguintes alterações: triglicérides=206,20 mg/dL + 135.3 (p<0,05), colesterol total = 189.8 mg/dL + 38.0 (p<0,001), LDL-colesterol = 109.10 mg/dL + 30.30 (p<0,001), HDL-colesterol = 45.20 mg/dL + 13.30 (p=NS). Observamos uma redução da freqüência de indivíduos com risco cardiovascular elevado segundo o escore de FR, de 92,0% para 27,6% após a intervenção (p<0,0001), com escore ATP-III de 80,5% para 50,6% (p<0,0002) e com o escore PROCAM de 25,3% para 14,9%, (p=NS). O programa de intervenção proposto associou-se a uma redução do risco cardiovascular estimado. Todos os escores, com exceção do PROCAM mostraram-se úteis na prática clinica e para triagem e acompanhamento dos pacientes com risco cardiovascular elevado. Entretanto o escore de Framingham se mostrou como o mais sensível que os outros escores e detectou pequenas variações no risco cardiovascular em curto espaço de tempo, devendo este ser o escore de escolha para esta população / Although HAART therapy has reduced AIDS morbid-mortality, it is associated to metabolic disturbances and increased cardiac risk profile. It is well established in clinical cardiology that cardiac risk scores can predict cardiovascular complications with great accuracy and are useful to guide interventions toward risk reduction. We designed this study to analyze the effect of a primary prevention intervention program on the estimated cardiovascular risk and to compare the power of three different risk scores to detect risk reduction in a short time window. Methods: We prospectively evaluated 87 HIV + patients referred for cardiologic consultation for primary prevention and we assessed their cardiac risk applying 3 risk scores: Framingham (FR), PROCAM (PR) and National Cholesterol Education Program (ATP-III) in four steps: before and 30 days, 3 months and 6 months after intervention. For this study cardiovascular risk was classified as low if it was predicted less than 10% risk of cardiac complications for the next 10 years, or elevated, if it was higher than 10%. All patients were included in a cardiovascular prevention program and received non-pharmacological concealing (diet, physical activity prescription, smoking cessation advice) and pharmacological therapy, when appropriate (hypolipidemic and anti-hypertensive medications). Deviations in risk scores were compared using Fisher`s exact test at a p < .05 significance level. In our population, the mean age was 52 yrs, 92% were male, 39.1% were smokers, 70.1% had hypertension, 18.4% had diabetes. All patients were under HAART therapy, 56.3 % were receiving protease inhibitors, and no patient had his therapy switched. Lipid profile analysis before interventions revealed triglycerides = 298.70 mg/dL + 242.30, totalcholesterol= 224.6 mg/dL + 47.60, LDL-cholesterol = 129.50 mg/dL + 44.50, HDLcholesterol = 43.10 mg/dL + 12.60. Six months after intervention lipid profile change to: triglycerides = 206.20 mg/dL + 135.3 (p<.05), total-cholesterol = 189.8 mg/dL + 38.0 (p<.001), LDL-cholesterol = 109.10 mg/dL + 30.30 (p<.001), HDL-cholesterol = 45.20 mg/dL + 13.30 (p=NS). According to FR score, elevated cardiac risk before and 6 months after intervention was estimated in 92% x 27.6% of our patients, respectively (P = .0001). According to PROCAM score, it was 25.3% x 14.9%, respectively (P = NS). As for ATP-III, it was 80.5% x 50.6%, respectively (P= .0002). The proposed cardiovascular prevention program was associated with a reduction in the estimated cardiovascular risk in patients with HIV infection. All score risk indexes, except PROCAM are useful to the initial and follow-up evaluation of the cardiac risk in HIV infected patients, but the Framingham Risk score performance showed greater sensitivity than the others to detect small variations in a short time window, so it should be the score of choice

O lítio é freqüentemente utilizado no tratamento do Transtorno Bipolar, doença associada a um risco aumentado para demência. Evidências experimentais sugerem efeitos neuroproterores do lítio. O lítio inibe a amiloidogênese e a fosforilação da proteína tau tanto in vitro como in vivo. Estes são processos importantes na patogênese da doença de Alzheimer. O objetivo este estudo foi a investigação do efeito do lítio na prevalência de Transtorno Cognitivo Leve e doença de Alzheimer em 114 bipolares idosos eutímicos. Todos os sujeitos completaram uma avaliação catamnéstica, psicopatológica e cognitiva que incluía o mini-exame do estado mental (Mini-mental), o teste cognitivo de Cambridge (CAMCOG) e o questionário do informante sobre o declínio cognitivo do idoso (IQCODE). Foi feita uma comparação da prevalência de Transtorno Cognitivo Leve e doença de Alzheimer entre pacientes em uso de lítio e pacientes em uso de outros estabilizadores de humor. Os sujeitos que entraram na pesquisa tinham em média 68,2 ± 5,0 anos e preenchiam os critérios da Décima Revisão da Classificação Internacional de Doenças e Problemas de Saúde Relacionados (CID-10) para o transtorno bipolar. Durante a avaliação os bipolares estavam eutímicos. Eutimia foi definida como uma pontuação máxima de 7 pontos na escala de Hamilton de 21 pontos para Depressão e 4 na escala de Young para mania. 66 pacientes em uso contínuo do lítio por 6 anos em média foram comparados com 48 pacientes em tratamento com outros estabilizadores de humor. O diagnóstico de Transtorno Cognitivo Leve foi feito de acordo com os critérios de Petersen(1999) e de doença de Alzheimer de acordo com o critério do “National Institute for Communicative Disorders and Stroke - Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Disorders Association" (NINCDS/ADRDA). A prevalência de demência nesta amostra (19,4%) foi mais elevada do que o esperado para uma população comparável (7,1%). A prevalência de doença de Alzheimer entre aqueles com lítio foi 4,5% quando comparada com 33,3% entre aqueles sem lítio. Controlando idade e outras variáveis relacionadas ao curso da doença, o efeito do lítio na prevalência de doença de Alzheimer permaneceu significativo (OR = 0,079; p < 0,001). Nenhuma associação foi encontrada com Transtorno Cognitivo Leve. A alta da prevalência de doença de Alzheimer neste estudo está de acordo com as evidências de risco aumentado para demência em pacientes bipolares. Nesta amostra o tratamento com lítio reduziu a prevalência de Alzheimer aos níveis da população idosa em geral. Estes achados estão de acordo com os efeitos neuroprotetores do lítio em eventos cruciais para a patologia da doença de Alzheimer. Estudos prospectivos são necessários para avaliar se o lítio também pode ser efetivo na prevenção de doença de Alzheimer em outras populações. / Lithium is widely used in the treatment of bipolar disorder, a condition associated with an increased risk for dementia. Experimental evidence suggests that lithium has a neuroprotective effect. Both in vitro and in vivo, lithium inhibits amyloidogenesis and phosphorilation of tau protein, which are two crucial processes in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of lithium on the prevalence of Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer’s disease in 114 elderly euthymic bipolar patients. Subjects completed a thorough catamnestic, psychopathological and cognitive tests evaluation including the Mini-mental state evaluation, Cambridge cognitive test (CAMCOG) and the informant questionnaire on cognitive decline in the elderly (IQCODE). The prevalence of Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer’s disease between patients on lithium therapy and patients on treatment with other mood-stabilizing drugs was compared. Patients were 68.2 ± 5.0 years old and fulfilled of the International Classification of Diseases - 10th Revision (ICD-10) diagnosis for bipolar disorder. At the time of the evaluation patients were euthymic, as defined by a maximum score of 7 in the 21-item Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, and 4 in the Young Mania Rating Scale. Sixty-six patients were continuously being treated with lithium for six years, on average, and 48 patients were receiving other mood-stabilizing drugs. Diagnosis of Mild Cognitive Impairment was made according to Petersen (1999) and of Alzheimer’s disease was made according to the National Institute for Communicative Disorders and Stroke - Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Disorders Association (NINCDS/ADRDA) criteria. The overall prevalence of dementia in our sample (19.4%) was higher than the prevalence expected in the age-comparable general population (7.1%). The prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease among lithium users was 4.5% as compared to 33.3% among non-users. After controlling for age and other variables related to the clinical course of the bipolar disorder, the effect of lithium on Alzheimer’s disease prevalence remained significant (OR = 0.079; p < 0.001). No association was found with Mild Cognitive Impairment. The higher prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease in our study supports the reports of increased risk for dementia in bipolar patients. In our sample, lithium treatment reduced the prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease to the levels of the general elderly population. This finding is in line with the neuroprotective effects of lithium on crucial events for the pathology of Alzheimer’s disease. Further prospective studies are needed to clarify whether lithium may also be effective in the prevention of Alzheimer’s disease in the general population.

Introdução: a derivação ventricular externa (DVE) envolve um cateter colocado no espaço ventricular cerebral para drenar o liquor (LCR) excessivo. As complicações mais comuns dessa prática incluem hemorragia em sítio de inserção, obstrução do cateter, desconexão do sistema e infecção com indicadores que variam de 1% a mais de 27%. Objetivo: analisar os indicadores de infecção relacionada à DVE e avaliar o impacto da intervenção na rotina de cuidados com cateter de DVE. Casuística e Método: estudo quase-experimental realizado na UTI Neurológica do Instituto Central do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo. Foram avaliados os dados de infecção em pacientes submetidos à DVE em duas etapas: pré-intervenção que ocorreu de abril de 2007 a julho de 2008 e intervenção que ocorreu de agosto de 2008 a julho de 2010. Na primeira etapa, foram realizadas observações do cuidado com DVE e aplicado questionário para avaliar o conhecimento dos profissionais. Na segunda etapa, foram realizados treinamentos da rotina de cuidados, higiene das mãos e biossegurança com intervalos de cinco, seis e sete meses e após um ano de intervenção foi realizado uma observação da higiene das mãos. Foram excluídos todos os pacientes que apresentaram traumatismo cranioencefálico com fratura exposta, presença de fístula liquórica, hidrocefalia congênita e presença de infecção ativa no sistema nervoso central. Os pacientes foram acompanhados por 30 dias após a retirada da DVE e considerou-se infecção relacionada à DVE os agentes microbiologicamente identificados em LCR de acordo com o critério do CDC. Foram realizadas cinco observações do cuidado com DVE, uma observação da higiene das mãos, uma elaboração da rotina de cuidados, três treinamentos com aulas expositivas e uma intervenção na redução do tempo de permanência do cateter de DVE, totalizando cinco intervenções. Resultados: Durante o estudo, 178 pacientes foram submetidos a 194 procedimentos correspondendo a 1217 cateteres-dia. A média de idade dos pacientes foi de 48 anos, sendo 62,4% do gênero feminino. A mortalidade global entre os pacientes foi de 34,8%. Antibioticoprofilaxia foi administrada em 80,4% dos procedimentos. Os agentes Gram-negativos foram identificados em 71,4% no período pré-intervenção e de 60% no período de intervenção. Os agentes Gram-positivos foram identificados em 14,3% no período pré-intervenção, de 20% no período de intervenção e infecção polimicrobiana foi identificada em 14,3% no período pré-intervenção e de 20% no período de intervenção. Os indicadores de infecção relacionada à DVE durante o estudo foram reduzidos de 9,5% para 4,8% por paciente (redução de 50,5%), de 8,8% para 4,4% por procedimento (redução de 50%) e a densidade de incidência de 14,0 para 6,9 infecções por 1.000 cateteresdia (redução de 49,2%) (p=0,027). Após a quarta intervenção, não foi identificada nenhuma infecção microbiologicamente confirmada durante doze meses consecutivos. Conclusão: Observou-se redução sustentada dos indicadores de infecção relacionada à DVE e diante desses resultados, a intervenção educacional continuada mostrou ser uma ferramenta útil na redução desses indicadores. / Introduction: an external ventricular drain (EVD) involves the placement of a catheter into the cerebral ventricular space in order to drain excessive cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The most common complications of this practice include hemorrhage at the insertion site, obstruction of the catheter, disconnection of the system, and infection with indicator values that vary from 1% to more than 27%. Objective: to analyze the indicators of EVD-related infection and assess the impact of intervention on the routine of care of the EVD catheter. Cases and Method: the quasi-experimental study was carried out at the Neurological Intensive Care Unit of the Central Institute at the Clinics Hospital of the University of São Paulo School of Medicine. Data regarding infection from patients submitted to EVD were analyzed in two phases: pre-intervention, which occurred from April 2007 to July 2008, and intervention, which occurred from August 2008 to July 2010. During the first stage, observations were made as to the care given to the EVD and a questionnaire was applied to evaluate the level of knowledge of the healthcare professionals. During the second stage, training was given as to a routine of care, hand hygiene, and biosafety, with intervals of five, six, and seven months; one year after the intervention, observation of hand hygiene was performed. Excluded were all patients presenting with cranioencephalic trauma with exposed fractures, presence of CSF leakage, congenital hydrocephalus, and presence of active infection of the central nervous system. Patients were followed for 30 days after EVD removal and EVDrelated infections were considered those caused by agents microbiologically identified in the CSF according to CDC criteria. We conducted five observations of the care taken with the EVD, one observation of hand hygiene, one preparation of a routine of care, three training sessions with expository classes, and one intervention to reduce the time the EVD catheter remained in place, with a total of five interventions. Results: during the study, 178 patients were submitted to 194 procedures, corresponding to 1217 catheters-day. The mean age of the patients was 48 years, and 62.4% of them were females. Global mortality among the patients was 34.8%. Prophylaxis with antibiotics was given in 80.4% of the procedures. Gramnegative agents were identified in 71.4% of the cases during the preintervention period, and 60% during the intervention period. Gram-positive agents were identified in 14.3% of the cases during the pre-intervention period, and 20% during the intervention period, and 14.3% of them were polymicrobial infection in the pre-intervention period, and 20% during the intervention period. The values of EVD-related infection indicators during the study fell from 9.5% to 4.8% per patient (a 50.5% reduction), from 8.8% to 4.4% per procedure (a 50% reduction), and the density of incidence dropped from 14.0 to 6.9 infections per 1,000 catheters-day (a 49.2% reduction) (p=0.027). After the fourth intervention, no microbiologically confirmed infection was identified throughout twelve consecutive months. Conclusion: we observed a sustained reduction in EVD-related infection and in light of these results, continued educational intervention proved to be a useful tool in reducing these indicators.