The aim of this paper is to find out whether the securitization theory of the Copenhagen School is applicable outside euro-american space. This topic is chosen because of the contradicting opinions of theorists regarding the universality of the theory. Many authors criticize also the disregard of the process, context, pictures or physical actions. The theory is applied in societal sector in Egypt on nine cases including human rights non-governmental organizations, political opponents, critics and asylum seekers. The development of securitization, implementation of extraordinary measures, results and impact of the securitization are monitored in these cases. Attention is paid also to the fact whether securitization took into consideration context, process and whether pictures and physical actions played any role and what role it was. Method used in the paper is instrumental case study. It aims at the explanation of narrowly defined case on the basis of the theory. In the stated cases the threats to identity are presented as "others", alien and with the exception of one case as "Western" which means different from the Egyptian identity. The implementation of extraordinary measures to deal with the threats then becomes legitimate. The main contribution of the paper is the finding that the...

Nuclear weapons are the key element of the security policy of the United States of America since 1945. Since then, nuclear weapons and related nuclear threats were part of a social discourse of the United States. This thesis examined how these threats were socially constructed within the discourse by individual actors. Then, by discoursive analysis, the thesis investigated how the nuclear disarmament discourse responded to these identified threats. The study focused on how these identified threats and the nuclear disarmament discourse influenced each other in each period and how they impacted following periods. This diploma thesis examined the U.S. nuclear discourse while using a methodological framework of discoursive analysis. The diploma thesis operated with the theory of securitization and determined key moments, when particular threat was designated as existential to the security of the United States and when, eventually, this threat subsided.

This paper analyzes two policies published by the Canadian Government, the Electronic Travel Visa and the Interactive Advance Passenger Information. These policies were initiated to close an integrity gap and to fight security issues resulting from globalization. These two documents are problematized by using Carol Bacchi’s analytical framework, What’s the Problem Represented to be, to dissect the underlying problem representations, the historical developments and the effects of these policies on migrants and travellers. Globalization, securitization and externalization in connection to Critical Border Studies are used for theoretical development. The results show that these policies have altered Canadian border management by pushing screening processes outside of physical sovereign boundaries and traps migrants in a web of offshore policing and securitization.

The research focus of this study is to investigate the ways in which the so-called European refugee crisis has been socially constructed as number one urgent matter for the European community in the years between 2015-2017. Noting the unprecedented rise of the public support for far-right parties in the European polls, the goal of this study is to understand and conceptualize the ways in which the refugee crisis has been presented as an existential threat by the right-wing political leaders in the Netherlands, France and Germany, three core European members, which held elections in 2017. This has been done by utilizing the theoretical framework, composed of the Copenhagen School, as well as the categorization framework which builds upon the results from previous literature on the topic of the securitization of migration. In addition, by utilizing critical discourse analysis this study probes the hypothesis that regardless of the magnitude of the crisis, the securitizing discourses are largely revolving around four overarching realms: the identity, criminological, political and economic realm. The findings infer that the securitizing discourses of the right-wing leaders in the Netherlands, France and Germany in relation to migration are identical and are revolving around the aforementioned domains, regardless of the countries’ political landscape.

Refugee camps, mostly located in the Global South, host millions of human beings and mirror the overburden and incapacity of humanitarian response. If these places were once supposedly created to aggregate asylum-seekers temporarily, now they have become the norm for prolonged stays where future generations grow.This thesis explores the viability of the UNHCR’s durable solutions for Rohingya Refugees- local integration, resettlement, and repatriation. Moreover, it questions the role of non-state actors when it comes to decision-making in refugee governance. The analysis is conducted through a critical interpretive synthesis. The selected literature was scrutinized and linked to theoretical concepts such as human security, securitization of migration, legal pluralism, and complex interdependence.In summary, the literature analyzed shares a unanimity that, although conditions in the camps are unsustainable for permanent stays, efforts to build better futures for refugees are not being explored enough. This is mainly due to a reluctance of States to accept refugees on behalf of their integrity and security, in the sense that refugees are perceived as threats to their sovereignty. In this sense, potential efforts by non-state actors to provide a sustainable future for refugees fall behind: in a scenario where national security prevails, keeping refugees in the camp seems to be the safest choice.

In February of 2022, Putin invaded Ukraine, leaving many people displaced. When the war broke out, it received widespread international condemnation and was subject to bias from state officials, news outlets and civilians. State officials reacted favorably, expressing a   desire to support Ukraine and impose sanctions on Russia. The invasion brought millions of refugees seeking safety from the conflict to EU member states, resulting in neighbouring countries admitting every single Ukrainian that reaches their territory. Revealing western media's true colors. This thesis employs a Discourse Analysis to examine western media's bigotry language and portrayal towards non-Ukrainians while covering the Ukrainian conflict. Poststructuralism theory will be applied to comprehend the media’s racial undertones in its depiction of the conflict. I argue the prevalent western hypocrisy in media coverage. The findings of the thesis reveal the existence of biased and racist rhetoric language used by western media.

Online disinformation is a complicated and controversial phenomenon that is proving to be a large challenge for governments, private sector bodies, and civil society groups in a variety of different contexts around the globe. Foreign influence operations conducted through online disinformation campaigns have been implemented in various contexts with the intention to create political instability within these targeted nations. This thesis examines the question: What education policy initiatives are being implemented and/or already exist in the United States and Finland in an effort to make themselves more resilient to transnational online disinformation campaigns? Various policy documents that concern education legislation are analyzed through Bacchi’s (2009) ‘What’s the Problem Represented to be?’ approach. Concepts associated with the Securitization theory and Buzan’s (1998) security analysis framework were applied to the content of these documents in order assess whether the reasoning or discourse associated with the introduction of critical media literacy programs was related to counteracting the threat of one foreign disinformation. Results indicated that there were many differences in how and why the United States and Finland implemented media literacy programs. There are indications that the perceived threat of foreign disinformation campaigns is one of the main justifications for the United States and Finland to introduce or improve national media literacy policies. This work allows other researchers to see these differences in approaches and how they relate to the international communities’ efforts toward utilizing media literacy as a security measure against disinformation.

Climate change not only corresponds to scientifically proven future implications, but also poses a politically relevant study of climate security analysis, affecting the study and practice of (international) politics in different ways. In the same vein, the EU as an international organization have been getting more involved in discussions of climate-related security risks, in which the European Commission (which represents the Union’s common interests) have been publishing a set of consecutive policy documents addressing the climate change since the early 2000’s. Accordingly, this thesis studies five big policy documents produced by the Commission addressing the climate change between 2007 and 2021 by conducting a Qualitative Content Analysis upon the discourses and conceptualizations used to inform how the issue is to be understood, while basing on the theoretical model developed by von Lucke  et al.’s (2014) that distinguishes levels of referent objects and risk-security approaches. In doing so, it finds that the Commission often draws indirect connections between the climate change and its social, political and economic implications to the EU at the territorial (and individual) level, while heavily employing risk-based approaches and promoting rather business-as-usual solutions.

We live in an era of advanced technological innovations and it is therefore difficult to acquire a proper overview of the different surveillance techniques deployed for the purpose of enhancing and administrating migration control. The intent of this paper is to disseminate one of the new technologies on the market: the biometric technology that is an identification and verification system based on measurements of biological traits. Different approaches are used to explore and investigate the technological functions, social structures and political justifications for their validity and their role in the implementation of the biometric technology. The paper also provides an overview of the different areas of political and social management that are affected by the implementation of the biometric techniques.The principal aim of this work is to examine how the implementation of the biometric techniques will affect privacy for all people, taking both information privacy and personal integrity into consideration. The second question deals with migration management, as the current implementation mainly involves travel documents. It focuses on the consequences of the so-called war on terror and its call for prevention of terrorism and irregular migration. The dilemma between national security and the right to privacy, public good and private interests, and the realms of state and individual rights are also discussed and analysed.Hence, the framework and the fundamental structure of this thesis are based on three core issues pertinent to the implementation of biometrics in the EU: threats posed on the right to privacy, securitization of migration, and intensification of surveillance and state control. The findings are used to identify the threats posed on right to privacy and the way this right is compromised, and the consequences of practices and policies in the field of migration that are discriminatory and exclusory. Lastly, by employing different theories, this paper examines why state seeks technological control over citizens and why individuals comply with state control and surveillance.

Following a rapid increase of interest rates globally, numerous sectors have observed instability. This isespecially apparent for the Swedish commercial Real Estate sector that has historically utilized the bondmarket in their junior financing - a market that for many firms has become unavailable. In addition, withprior economic crises resulting in increases of Non-Performing Loans, the banking sector needs tools tomanage its internal balance sheet with upcoming regulatory changes taking effect. Securitization canserve as an interesting tool for banks to share its risk with risk-willing investors and to obtain capitalrelief, improving capital allocation efficiency and profitability. Furthermore, securitization is anefficient tool that can be utilized in the large infrastructure projects that are required to achieve a greentransition. Historically, securitization has carried a certain level of social stigma related to it being partlysynonymous with the Great Financial Crisis of 2008. Following the Great Financial Crisis, newlyimplemented regulations towards the banking sector and securitization currently serve more of amacroprudential purpose, hence entailing a lower risk than pre-crisis. This study has explored the Nordic securitization market with an emphasis towards the Swedish market.A semi-structured interview method has been used to cover the depth of knowledge from respondentsthat have a domestic and/or an international experience of securitization. The participating respondentscover the perspective of banks and/or persons of experience structuring securitizations, financialadvisors to alternative financing strategies, investors of securitized products and from a regulatorystandpoint. The result of this study shows that the Nordic market for securitization lags the European and Americanmarket with few stakeholders and low transaction volumes. In the Nordics, there are however somemajor differences, with Denmark and Finland being significantly more sophisticated in the fieldcompared to Sweden. The main possible explanation to why the major Swedish banks have not utilizedthis tool is due to a lack of ambition and possibly a concern with later outcomes, i.e., not receivingbeneficial capital requirements. Whilst other asset classes, e.g.: consumer receivables; car leasing, andNon-Performing Loan’s has been securitized in Sweden, this study cannot conclude that real estate willfollow the same success. This since Swedish banks are using secured bonds in their real estate fundingand because of the Swedish Financial Supervisory Authority view on flow-back risk. There are signs ofthe Swedish securitization market increasing in volume, albeit from a low level, but for it to becommonly utilized, major changes in direction are required both from a banking perspective and froma regulatory perspective. / Efter en kraftig global ökning av styrräntor har flera sektorer erfarit instabilitet. Detta framgår särskilt iden svenska kommersiella fastighetssektorn, som historiskt sett har nyttjat obligationsmarknaden förderas juniora finansiering - en marknad som för många bolag har blivit oåtkomlig. Efter tidigareekonomiska kriser som resulterat i ett ökat antal nödlidande lån, behöver dessutom bankmarknadenverktyg för att hantera deras interna balansräkningar med anledning av kommande regulatoriskaförändringar som träder i kraft. Värdepapperisering kan vara ett attraktivt verktyg för banker att delarisk med investerare, uppnå kapital-lättnad, och därmed förbättra effektivitet och lönsamhet ikapitalallokering. Värdepapperisering har stor potential att fungera som ett effektivt verktyg för attmöjliggöra de stora infrastrukturprojekt som krävs för den gröna omvandlingen, genom attkapitallättnader från värdepapperisering av bruna tillgångar öronmärks till grön utlåning. Historiskt setthar värdepapperisering varit förknippad med en viss mängd socialt stigma på grund av dess delvisasynonymitet med den stora finanskrisen 2008. Efter finanskrisen uppkom en mängd nya regleringargentemot bankmarknaden och värdepapperisering för att i makro-syfte verka som en försiktighetsåtgärd,vilket därav medför en lägre risk än innan krisen. Denna studie har utforskat den nordiska marknaden för värdepapperisering, med emfas på den svenskamarknaden. En semistrukturerad intervjumetod har använts för att täcka djupet av kunskap hosrespondenterna, som har inhemsk och/eller internationell erfarenhet av värdepapperisering. Demedverkande respondenterna täcker perspektiven: banker och/eller personer som har erfarenhet av attstrukturera värdepapperiseringar, finansiella rådgivare till alternativa finansieringsstrategier, investeraresom investerar i värdepapperiserade produkter, samt det regulatoriska perspektivet. Resultatet av denna studie visar att den nordiska marknaden för värdepapperisering, med dess fåintressenter och låga transaktionsvolymer, ligger i efterkant jämfört med den europeiska ochamerikanska marknaden. Inom Norden finns dock signifikanta skillnader, där Danmark och Finland ärmer sofistikerade inom området än vad Sverige är. De stora anledningarna till att de svenskastorbankerna inte har använt detta verktyg är sannolikt på grund av en avsaknad av vilja samt eventuellaefterkommande resultat, det vill säga en avsaknad av sänkta kapitalkrav. Medan andra tillgångsklasser,exempelvis: konsumentkrediter; billeasing, och; nödlidande lån, har värdepapperiserats i Sverige kaninte denna studie fastställa att fastigheter skulle bli lika framgångsrikt. Detta eftersom svenska bankeranvänder säkrade obligationer för deras finansiering av fastigheter, och på grund av Finansinspektionenssyn på återflödesrisk. Det finns tecken på att den svenska värdepapperiseringsmarknaden ökar i volym,om så från en låg utgångspunkt. För att värdepapperisering ska bli mer nyttjat krävs stora förändringarbåde från ett bankperspektiv och ett regulatoriskt perspektiv.