This thesis examines the everyday resistance, and its interaction with cultural hybridity, of the Saami population in the administrative unit of Torne lappmark during the period 1639–1732. To do this, the thesis uses theoretical concept of everday resistance as it has been described by JamesC. Scott and the theories of cultural hybridity as they have been described by Peter Burke. Primary source material used in this thesis consists of the court records from Torne lappmark, specifically from the courts at Jukkasjärvi and Enontekis.The results of this thesis present a picture of the everyday resistance in early modern Torne lappmark. The states control was most prominent at the annual markets and court proceedings. The everyday resistance of the Saamis became more subtle when the supervision by the Swedish state became more significant, for example by cutting off pieces from the reindeer hides that they sold or taxed with. Further away from the courts the Saamis could use more drastic options, for example fleeing to Norway. The Swedish state did not want to implement hard punishments on the Saamis because the mining operations in the lappmarks were dependent on Saamis and reindeers to carry ore, wood and food in order to keep the mines operational. This is used by the Saamis as an argument against material domination. The insults and rumours concerning state officials that can be found in the source material often concern abuse of power. The lack of control outside the yearly court proceedings also led to harassments of state and church officials.The Swedish state had political reasons to present the Saamis as chris- tian subjects while trying to exterminate the Saami religion. The Saamis therefore learned a sufficient amount of christianity to make interaction with the state easier and to use as a tool in court proceedings to avoid punishment. This normalised and legitimised the states use of power. The fact that Saamis carried christian ideas and could reproduce them when they needed also led to a cultural hybridisation. They also adapted these ideas in accordance to their own worldview. Some Saamis also hybridised the two religions in different religious practises.The use of these theoretical models offers a new perspective on the interaction between the Swedish state and the Saamis. It also gives a new perspective on the power relationships in Torne lappmark during the early modern period. Keywords: Saami history, everyday resistance, cultural hybridity, 17th century, 18th century

Hydropower development was one of the first systematic large-scale exploitations in the reindeer herding areas within Swedish borders. Therefore, this thesis departs from postcolonial approaches wherein the Swedish state policy and practice towards Sami, reindeer herders and Sápmi, the Sami homeland, is analysed as colonialism in relation to hydropower development. The study spans over the first large-scale hydropower projects in the reindeer herding area during the 1910’s and 1920’s, continuing with the decreased legal security during the second world war, and finally the opposition and opinion in the 1950’s and 1960’s, enabled by the establishment of a national association for Swedish Sami, SSR.      The industrialisation of watercourses in the reindeer herding areas were brought about by the works of an institutional framework consisting of the Water Act and the Reindeer Grazing Act together with the tutelage of a Lapp Administration. These institutions made invisible both reindeer herding as an industry and the herders rights. Authorities as well as hydropower companies acted and argued within an industrial colonial discourse. One technique was the re-writing of history and of the herders’ rights in favour of power developers. The Swedish hydropower system was built up based on cheap energy from the North, at the expense of stakeholders’ rights. This was made possible by arguing that exploitation was for the sake of ”the common good”. When reindeer herders eventually were noted in the process, reindeer herding was regarded as a vested interest and reindeer herding rights as a privilege given to the Sami by the state. In this system reindeer herders were given a more vulnerable legal position than farmers, in addition non-reindeer herding Sami were in some aspects even more affected by discriminating structures. By damming the watercourses, the grazing lands were reduced which affected the amount of herders that could practice reindeer husbandry and thereby also the amount of individuals holding Sami rights.      During the 1950’s and 1960’s the self-evidenced hydropower development was questioned by a Sami struggle for justice. With regards to Sami rights, the situation was more stagnant due to the state avoiding official investigation of certain legal issues that were object for trial. However, the industrial colonial discourse and the governing of hydropower politics were challenged and the authorities changed some of their notions of reindeer herders. Nevertheless, the Sami were denied representation and involvement in governing the finances that were aimed at alleviation of the consequences of various interferences in the herding area. / TJOAHKKÁJGÄSOS  Ådå tjátje, tjáhppis spiejildime. Industridjalasj kolonialissma dáttja tjáhtjefábmobidtjima tjadá boatsojsujttoednamin 1910-1968  Gå dáttja jávrijt ja änojt dulvvadahtjin de álgij akta dajs vuostasj plánidum stuoráp ekploaterima ma sjaddin ållo sajijn boatsojsujttoednamin Svieriga rájij sinna. Dán diedalasj tjállaga vuodo manná maŋŋekolonialak gähttjamguovlos gånnå Svieriga politijkka ja praktijkka sámij, räjnárij ja Sámeednamij vuosstáj guoradaláduvvi kolonialissman tjáhtjefábmobidtjima gávttuj.      Åtsådallam álggá daj vuostasj stuoráp bidtjimij boatsojsujttoednamin 1910-lågon, ja joarkká gehtjadimijn lágaj hárráj ma álkkedin tjáhtjefábmobidtjimijt nubbe väráltdoaron. Maŋutjissaj guoradaláduvvi vuossteháhko ja vuojnno ma sjaddin máhttelis 1950- ja 1960-lågojn, iehtjádij siegen gå vuododij rijkkalihtov svieriga sámijda. Gehtjadibme manná 1968 rádjáj ja sämmi jage bådij árvvádallam ådå boatsojäláduslága birra.      Gå dáttja jávrijt ja änojt dulvvadahtjin boatsojsujttoednamin de tjadáduvvin institutalasj rábmaverkajn tjáhtjelágas, boatsojguohtomlágas ja stáhta boatsojäládusadministrasjåvnå mindárimes, ma vuojnodibmen dahkin boatsojsujtov äládussan ja räjnárij rievtesvuodajt tjáhtjeriektáássijn. Fábmudagá ja bidtjijiddje håladin ja barggin industrikolonialak diskursas gånnå rievtesvuoda ja histårjjå máhttin bånjudallat bidtjijiddjemiellogisvuoda ávkkáj. Håladime tjadá ”álmmuga buoremussan” bidtjiduvvin Svieriga tjáhtjefábmovuogádagá, vuododum hálbes energiddjaj nuorttat ja dassta sjattaj riektálasj ålgustjuolldemin ja unnediddje riektáäjgádin ja miellodiddjen. Dán vuogádagán oadtjun räjnára nievrep riektásajádagáv ednambarggijs, ja sáme boatsojsujto ålggolin nuppástallin ienebut. Dulvvadime unnedin boatsojguohtomednamijt vaj binnáp sáme máhttin boatsojäládusán barggat.      Sáme riektáoajbbom 1950- ja 1960-lågojn dagáj vaj ulmutja juorrulahtjin jus bidtjima lidjin diehttelis. Sáme rievtesvuoda hárráj de åvdedibme suojmabut manáj gå muhtem riektáássje ettjin guoradaláduvá tjielggidusájn jut lidjin juo duobbmoståvlån. Industrikolonialak diskurssa ja stivrrim tjáhtjefábmopolitijkas hásteduvvin huoman rievddadit muhtemijt sijá vuojnojs boatsojsujto ja räjnárij hárráj. Valla sáddnan la de báhtsin ietjá vuojno mälggadij gå sáme vuornoduvvin saje ja bájnatjibme sámefoanndabiednigij badjel ma galggin ekploaterima vahágijt unnedit. Översättning: Nils-Olof Sortelius / Urre tjaatjieh, tjiellketet vuöjneme. Faamoen vallteme jeänoede tsieekedeme saamien ätneme sisnie 1910-1968. Aneteme jeänoiheste lih maitie vuosts stuore aneteme guh ussjedemme lih, guh narretih stuore oasieh saamien ätnemeste Ruotsienne. Dahte leh supsteteb guktie tsieekedeme jeätjtatteih saamieh, buutsesaamieh jah saamien ätneme jah Ruotsie faamoen dahkeme jah vihtietit, aj giehtjetdihke mierreteme jeänoih faamoeh.      Giehtjete allka vuosts stuore tsieekedemeh buutsätnemenne 1910 - 1920 jaapienne jah jorrkeleh giehtjetemeh laagahenne guh tsieekedeme giehpetin muppie ätneme doaroenne. Mahketennie giehtjedihke vuössietietib jah mieletib guh tjuöttjelit 1950 jah 1960 jaapienneh. 1968 urre buutselaagab tjaaledihke.      Tsieekedeme jeänoesne dahkedihke viehketalleh tjaatjielaagaeste buutsegootemelaagaeste jah oajvedemes laapeveäsoemeste. Gautan sjatteih buutsebarrkeme jah buutsebuörie ieh gihtjeih elltie riekte eretvalltedihke. Faamoe jah veäsoke riektesvuote jah autebiejvieih veäsoede jiitjide dahkein. Dah jiehteih tsieekedemeb gaihke allmetjeh hevonemes lin. Gaihke otjoin alpies njuöie saamien ätnemeste jis riektesvuote juhteih faamoesse jah veäsokesse. Buutsebarrkoejaih riektesvuoteh unnebe sjatteih. Tsieekedemeste gaihkeh barrsjeh dahkeih gootemeb unnebe jah dahkeih juhtemin garhtjies sjatteih jah buutsebuörie uhttseteih.      Saamien doaroe 1950 - 1960 jaapienne viehkieih juoremeb lassanit tsieekedemesne. Saamien riekte bööteih suöjmielaaka auteles. Faamoe jiehteih tsalloe lih lagastoahpoesne guh tsakkesteih. Dah naggatalleme tsieekedejan huoloeme jah jeätjatatteh vuöjnie buutsebarrkoejah jah buutsebarrkoe. Lihkan lik dohkoe ieh buutsebarrkoejah faamoe bietnegenne buutsebarrkoesse vattedihke.   Översättning: Kenneth Saarstav och Valborg Wiinka / Anpassningar av naturresursbaserade samhällen till klimat- och samhällsförändringar. Samisk renskötsel i dåtid, nutid och framtid.

<p>This dissertation is an analysis of the cultural meeting between the Church and the Crown on the one hand, and the Sami community on the other, in a lappmark in the north of Sweden during the seventeenth century.</p><p>The authorities viewed and acted towards the Sami from the standpoint of their normative system, incorporating the political/ideological discourse that existed at this time. This was implemented by means of judicial machinery that represented the Sami as indulging in immoral sexual behavior and idolatry. This was due to the fact the authorities nurtured an interest in the different: the Sami became the Other, representing an antithesis of the authorities’ own existence. The authorities’ need to create this antithesis led to a representation of the Sami as sexually immoral and idolatrous that endured throughout the period of this research, with results that have both qualitative and quantitative foundations in two categories of crimes: those against religion, and sexual offences.</p><p>The Sami, for their part, exhibited cultural manifestations that, when detached from the court rolls’ narrative structure, clearly distinguish themselves from the normative system represented and implemented by the authorities. Conciliation in court was common amongst the Sami; their views on theft, murder or manslaughter, and sexual offences never coincided with the perspective maintained by the authorities on these issues, which was based on laws and ordinances. There were two reasons for this: the first was that the Sami did not stigmatize as criminals individuals who had committed unlawful deeds, as was the case with the authorities, who operated within the framework of the Swedish legal system; the second reason was that the Sami had other traditions concerning marriage and religious practice. The Sami interacted not only with each other, but also in relation to other groups of people outside the community, such as visiting farmers, townspeople, merchants and ironworkers. Judicial matters were raised for different reasons: to document the distribution of inheritance; to obtain remuneration for purchases on credit; to obtain a financial settlement with regard to theft; and to establish clearly the sequence of events, in cases of murder and manslaughter. This sheds light on the question of why and how the Sami made use of the possibilities afforded to them by the court, despite instances of repression to begin with, when the authorities used the court system to initiate cases against the Sami, including crimes against religion and sexual offences. The legal cases also shed light upon Sami traditions, morals and cultural expressions, which not only differed from the normative system of the authorities but also from various traditions and morals that were exhibited by the peasantry in other parts of Sweden at this time – we can thus “see into” a seventeenth-century Sami community.</p><p>The authorities represented repression and control, with the result that the Sami became the Other. However, the Sami interacted both within and beyond their own community. This provides us with information about traditions and morals, which seem to have been characteristic in terms of Sami culture, whilst at the same time differing from the type of behaviour the authorities desired.</p><p>The survey includes theoretical perspectives used by sociologist Stuart Hall, philosophers Michel Foucault and Paul Ricoeur, literary scientist and cultural theorist Homi K. Bhabha, and others, as well as theories proposed by literary scientists Ania Loomba and Edward Said, as well as cultural theorist and literary scientist Robert J. C. Young.</p>

This dissertation is an analysis of the relations between reindeer herding Sami and settled non-Sami in Gällivare parish, Swedish Lapland, 1898-1940. The focus of the dissertation is on the system of skötesrenar, the practice of reindeer belonging to non-Sami being herded by Sami and the subsequent contacts between the two groups. The results presented demonstrate the transformation of the relations between the two groups from mutuai interdependence to mutuai self-sufficiency, and the swiftness with which this change took place. In order to analyse the transformation, reciprocity theory is used. Reciprocity theory concerns the Constitution of relations between different groups, and the basis for such relations. In the early 1900's, the practice of skötesrenar was a well-developed system contributing to the good relations between Sami and non-Sami, as well as to the improvement of the material conditions of those involved. The skötesrenar were important both socially and economically for the persons participating in the system. The huge societal changes that took place during the 20th Century resulted in painful consequences for the relations between the groups. Industrialisation multiplied the number and types of jobs available for the settled non-Sami, while the Sami to a large extent were prevented from partaking of the new opportunities. Industrialisation also caused the decline of the subsistence economy and made the market economy dominant in the locai community. The foundation of the system with skötesrenar had been the mutuai need to meet and exchange goods and services not available within each group; the growth of the market economy altered that. The laws concerning skötesrenar were also changed repeatedly - in 1898, 1917, and 1928 - without regard for the fears by the local community concerning the negative consequences for inter-group relations. Significant changes also took place within Sami society affecting the skötesrenar; the transformation of herding from the intensive to extensive type decreased the participation of women and children in herding, and subsequent erection of permanent residences for Sami families, as well as large annual fluctuations in herd sizes. The present dissertation demonstrates from reciprocity theory that a mutual concern - in this case the skötesrenar - can contribute to the maintenance of a low level of conflict between two ethnically and culturally different parties. Mutual interdependence is a significant factor in upholding a feeling of solidarity. The parties were eager to preserve good mutual relations as conflicts could severely hurt their material conditions. The societal changes taking place meant that by the 1930's the old institutionalised interdependency had ceased to exist. Older people continued the exchanges across group boundaries, but for the rising generation mutuai interaction was replaced by alienation. / digitalisering@umu

This study deals with the ethnopolitical mobilization among the Sami in Sweden during the first half of the 20th century. The investigation focus on why this mobilization took place, the demands the Sami made, and the strategies used to achieve these goals. Opposition towards the Swedish Sami policy was the most important reason for the political mobilization among the Sami. Both the formation of the Sami policy at the central administrative level, and the implementation of the policy at the regional and local level by the Lapp administration were criticised. During the first half of the period of investigation the Sami protests focused on policy decisions at central government level. During the later half of the period, it was the actions of the Lapp administration that triggered Sami activity. The central demands brought forward by the Sami movement concerned the position of the Sami in Swedish society. At the beginning of the period the Swedish Sami policy was based on the so called "Lapp shall remain Lapp" ideology. The Sami were looked upon as a reindeer herders by nature, who were weak and could not protect themselves against civilization, which was viewed as a threat to the cultural survival of the Sami. Therefore, they were to be protected by being segregated from the surrounding society. Only the reindeer herding Sami, however, were considered to be Sami which meant that a majority of the Sami population was not included in the Swedish Sami policy. A cultural boundary was drawn, which separated the Sami population into two large segments. Because of this, the main demands of the Sami movement were that the Sami should be granted an equal position in the Swedish society and that the Sami policy should include more aspects than just reindeer herding.Two main strategies were adopted by the Sami leaders to achieve the goals of the Sami movement. The first was to try to create a network of local Sami societies within a national Sami organization. As in Swedish society group interests were represented by a number of different organizations, Sami organizations were a precondition if the Sami were to be able to hold a dialogue with the Swedish authorities. However, during the period of investigation the Sami movement failed in its attempts to form a national Sami organization, which weakened the movement. The second strategy was directed at achieving more limited gains through goal-oriented actions, where the Sami were mobilized for shorter periods behind different demands. This second strategy was more successful during the period of investigation. However, ultimately the creation of a national Sami organization, was found to be a requirement if the Sami movement was to be able to influence the Swedish Sami policy. The formation of Svenska Samernas Riksförbund (National Union of the Swedish Sami) in 1950 was therefore an important step for the Sami movement.

This dissertation is an analysis of the cultural meeting between the Church and the Crown on the one hand, and the Sami community on the other, in a lappmark in the north of Sweden during the seventeenth century. The authorities viewed and acted towards the Sami from the standpoint of their normative system, incorporating the political/ideological discourse that existed at this time. This was implemented by means of judicial machinery that represented the Sami as indulging in immoral sexual behavior and idolatry. This was due to the fact the authorities nurtured an interest in the different: the Sami became the Other, representing an antithesis of the authorities’ own existence. The authorities’ need to create this antithesis led to a representation of the Sami as sexually immoral and idolatrous that endured throughout the period of this research, with results that have both qualitative and quantitative foundations in two categories of crimes: those against religion, and sexual offences. The Sami, for their part, exhibited cultural manifestations that, when detached from the court rolls’ narrative structure, clearly distinguish themselves from the normative system represented and implemented by the authorities. Conciliation in court was common amongst the Sami; their views on theft, murder or manslaughter, and sexual offences never coincided with the perspective maintained by the authorities on these issues, which was based on laws and ordinances. There were two reasons for this: the first was that the Sami did not stigmatize as criminals individuals who had committed unlawful deeds, as was the case with the authorities, who operated within the framework of the Swedish legal system; the second reason was that the Sami had other traditions concerning marriage and religious practice. The Sami interacted not only with each other, but also in relation to other groups of people outside the community, such as visiting farmers, townspeople, merchants and ironworkers. Judicial matters were raised for different reasons: to document the distribution of inheritance; to obtain remuneration for purchases on credit; to obtain a financial settlement with regard to theft; and to establish clearly the sequence of events, in cases of murder and manslaughter. This sheds light on the question of why and how the Sami made use of the possibilities afforded to them by the court, despite instances of repression to begin with, when the authorities used the court system to initiate cases against the Sami, including crimes against religion and sexual offences. The legal cases also shed light upon Sami traditions, morals and cultural expressions, which not only differed from the normative system of the authorities but also from various traditions and morals that were exhibited by the peasantry in other parts of Sweden at this time – we can thus “see into” a seventeenth-century Sami community. The authorities represented repression and control, with the result that the Sami became the Other. However, the Sami interacted both within and beyond their own community. This provides us with information about traditions and morals, which seem to have been characteristic in terms of Sami culture, whilst at the same time differing from the type of behaviour the authorities desired. The survey includes theoretical perspectives used by sociologist Stuart Hall, philosophers Michel Foucault and Paul Ricoeur, literary scientist and cultural theorist Homi K. Bhabha, and others, as well as theories proposed by literary scientists Ania Loomba and Edward Said, as well as cultural theorist and literary scientist Robert J. C. Young.

This dissertation is a study of the changing living conditions for the Sami in Swedish Såpmi (Samiland) throughout the twentieth century with an analysis based on a gender and ethnic perspective. At the turn of the century, the Sami lived as nomadic reindeer herders and were primarily self- sufficient. This changed as the reindeer herders shifted from a self-sufficient lifestyle to a money economy tor a variety of reasons. Over time they became more integrated in the dominant Swedish society and even more dependent on it. Reindeer herding has become increasingly mechanized since the I960's with rationalizations as a result. Even in to the 1990's the industry was the object of streamlining ettorts. A process of masculinization has also occurred and today's reindeer herding is a distinctly male coded profession. Women do not regularly participate in the daily work of reindeer breeding and their ability to have any direct influence on the herding districts (sameby) is limited. This is also largely true in terms of the Sami Parliament, the Sami popularly elected body. The Sami population has experienced unfavorable special legislation and regulation from the State. The population was divided into several different categories with different rights. Sami women were marginalized two-fold and subordinated, partly because of their ethnic affiliation (as Sami) and partly because of their sex (as women). This continues to be true today. The analysis of gender division of labor shows that a married couple had their own autonomous areas of power within the household. The wife was however still subordinate to her husband in his role as master of the family. The older reindeer herding society was not noted for its equality. There was a distinct hierarchy based on sex, age, and social status. Division of labor in modern reindeer breeding is in principle based on the same normative system as the older nomadic society. The study of the ethnic processes in Såpmi shows among other things that from a Sami perspective, a person is Sami who is related to other Sami and whose actions are based on a Sami identity. It is also clear today that there are many different Sami identities, that an individual person draws from a number of such identities and that it is the context that determines which of these are active in any given situation. The Sami identity is sex-based, i.e. there is a difference between a "male Sami" and a "female Sami." Sami women, unlike Sami men, cannot be politically active while also being active based on their sexual identity. Were they to do so, they would be excluded by definition from their ethnic group. Sami women must therefore subordinate themselves as women to be "genuine" Sami. They thereby contribute to their own marginalization and help maintain their own subordinated position in the Sami society. / digitalisering@umu

The aim of this essay is to analyze teacher’s thoughts about Sami culture, religion and history. How do teachers shape their teaching in these topics? Teachers in secondary school and the subjects religion and history has been the basis of the survey. To complete this work, these methods have been used; qualitative research interview, surveys and hermeneutics. When you conduct a study that involves people you have to include ethical principles. In this essay, these principals have supported the methods to fulfill the study. The Sami topic has been visible in the field, in different ways. Regarding its visibility in school, it is clear that Sami has been overlooked in teaching materials and by previous research in different school levels and subjects. The supporting theory in this essay is a curriculum-based theory that has looked deeper into the subjects religion and history curricula for elementary school and secondary school. This essay shows that Sami neither takes up a large or a small part in the teaching. Instead the Sami culture, religion and history appear as an example in other areas of these subjects.

This doctoral thesis examines how Sami women were represented in Swedish and Sami press during the years 1966, 1986 and 2006. Moreover, it problematises how the image of "the Sami woman" was constructed and represented in the press, in relation to the (re)production of normality and deviance, with special attention to the concepts of ethnicity and gender. The thesis adopts a theoretical framework informed by post-colonial theory and intersectional analysis, and the empirical study was approached through critical discourse analysis. Concepts such as orientalism, intersectionality, and strategic essentialism are central to the study, and the thesis includes discussions on ethics, reflexivity, knowledge and power as well as scrutinizing the hegemonic Western perspective in connection to Sami related research. As the main source materials, the Sami magazine Samefolket, and the Vilhelmina Sami press clippings archive were used. In addition to the articles, some of the women who appeared in the newspapers and magazines were interviewed, providing a valuable complement to the printed source materials. The study shows that Sami women were represented in a stereotypical manner in both Samefolket and in the Swedish press, with clear connections to the image of the Sami as it was formulated in the Swedish Sami policy during the 20th century. The balance between Sami and Swedish ethnicity was given increased attention over time, and women approached the theme by expressing themselves through various forms of art such as literature, film, photography or other extroverted activities. The importance of Sami women for the Sami ethno-political mobilisation appears to be more significant than has previously been noted, however women act from artistic platforms aswell as the traditional political arenas. As the dominant Swedish society, including members of the media, generally hold a low level of knowledge about Sami societies the discussion on Sami society, history and culture is kept at a rudimentary level. As a consequence, opportunities for in-depth discussions that represent the Sami from heterogeneous and alternative perspectives are limited. / <p>20160120: författaren har numera efternamnet Drugge. /ME</p>