Performance management has been called the defining contemporary challenge facing public organizations. While we cannot pretend to elucidate all its mysteries, we hope to provide solid evidence for a better comprehension of the social underpinnings of performance management. We believe that these articles contribute to the existing literature, offer new perspectives on the issues, and provide a coherent overview of the dynamics that surround performance information in public organizations. It has long been known in public administration that performance management was there to stay, warts and all, because its potential was just too great to ignore. Hopeful, this research will provide insights for managers on how to strive for effective performance management in their organizations. / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Les Aires Marines Protégées (AMPs) sont reconnues comme des outils efficaces de conservation et de gestion des ressources. L'efficacité des AMPs, définie comme le degré d'accomplissement de leurs objectifs, est très variable. Certaines caractéristiques des AMPs (âge) expliquent une partie de cette variabilité, mais une autre partie reste encore inexpliquée. En appliquant la Science de l’Organisation (OS, discipline qui étudie l’organisation) aux AMPs, d'autres facteurs qui affectent l'efficacité de la gestion pourraient être détectés. Les objectifs de ce manuscrit sont : 1) évaluer l'efficacité des AMPs méditerranéennes, 2) explorer l'application des OS aux AMPs, 3) utiliser la OS pour l'évaluation des caractéristiques de l'organisation des AMPs, la performance (qui est le niveau d'effort exercé pour atteindre les objectifs) et l'efficacité. Les données écologiques et organisationnelles des AMPs méditerranéennes ont été collectées dans la littérature scientifique et grise, et par des questionnaires. Les résultats montrent que les AMPs méditerranéennes sont efficaces, malgré que la variabilité de nos résultats n’ait été que partiellement expliquée. Notre approche utilisant la OS pour les AMPs n’a pas été appliquée auparavant. Notre tentative d'incorporer la OS dans le contexte des AMPs est ainsi originale. Les résultats montrent une hétérogénéité organisationnelle des AMPs méditerranéennes. Dans les AMPs étudiées, la performance était faible, avec des relations entre des variables organisationnelles et l'efficacité des AMPs. Cette recherche constitue une avancée pour améliorer l'efficacité des AMPs, qui aura de multiples répercussions écologiques, sociales et politiques. / Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are recognized as tools for conservation and resource management purposes. MPA management effectiveness, i.e. the degree of achievement of MPA goals, is highly variable. Some MPA features (e.g. age) partially explain such variability, but part of it still remains unexplained. Other factors affecting MPA management effectiveness could be detected by applying the Organization Science (OS, discipline that studies the organizations) to MPAs. The objectives of this manuscript are to 1) assess the management effectiveness of Mediterranean MPAs, 2) explore the application of OS in MPA context, 3) use the OS framework for the assessment of MPA organizational features, management performance (i.e. the level of effort exerted to achieve MPA goals) and effectiveness. Ecological and organizational data on Mediterranean MPAs were collected through questionnaires, and from peer-reviewed and grey literature. Results show that Mediterranean MPAs are effective, but the overall variability of our outcomes was only partially explained. No previous studies applied the OS framework to MPAs. Our attempt to incorporate the OS framework in the MPA context is, therefore, novel. Results show a significant heterogeneity of Mediterranean MPAs from an organizational point of view. The studied MPAs displayed a generally low management performance, with relationships between some organizational variables and the MPA management effectiveness. The present research is an important step forward to improve MPA management effectiveness, which has multiple ecological, social and political implications.

Embedding social and financial goals into investment decisions and organizational missions is an increasing hallmark of social finance, a rapidly growing phenomenon that aims to create sustainable solutions to some of society’s largest challenges such as poverty alleviation (Mosley & Hulme, 1998; Burgess & Pande, 2005; Beck et al. 2007a), wealth inequality (Buera et al. 2014; Lagoarde-Segot, 2017) and environmental preservation (Nicholls & Pharoah, 2008) among others (Benedikter, 2011). In recent years, the concept of social finance has emerged through applications such as venture philanthropy (Moody, 2008; Scarlata & Alemany, 2010), socially responsible investing (Renneboog et al. 2008; Nofsinger & Varma, 2014; Gutiérrez-Nieto et al. 2016), impact investing (Bugg-Levine & Emerson, 2011; Höchstädter & Scheck, 2015), corporate social responsibility (Falck & Heblich, 2007; Jha & Cox, 2015), crowdfunding sites that appeal to the charitable intentions of retail investors (Lehner, 2013; Lehner & Nicholls, 2014) and microfinance (Morduch, 1999; Beck et al. 2007b; Armendáriz & Labie, 2011). The microfinance industry is particularly suited to explore the nuances of social finance due to the wide range of actors present in the sector, including not only public, private and nonprofit actors (D’Espallier et al. 2016) but also a wide range of investor profiles including commercial rate, concessionary and fully donative funders (Dorfleitner et al, 2017). To meet these innovations in social finance, a substantial body of scholarly research has materialized in various areas: corporate finance (Bogan, 2012; Tchuigoua, 2014), investing (Dorfleitner et al. 2012; Brière & Szafarz, 2015), nonprofit finance (Jegers, 2011; Roberts, 2013), banking (Gutiérrez-Nieto et al. 2009; Cornée et al. 2016), entrepreneurship (Nicholls, 2010; Bruton et al. 2015), development economics (Cull et al. 2009; Ahlin et al. 2011; Hermes et al. 2011; Hartarska et al. 2013), business ethics (Sandberg et al. 2009; Arjaliès, 2010; Hudon & Sandberg, 2013), organizational theory (Battilana & Dorado, 2012; Pache & Santos, 2013), legal studies (Henderson & Malani, 2009), public economics (Duncan, 2004; Andreoni & Payne, 2011) and management studies (Cobb et al. 2016). However, these theories are often siloed within a particular domain and used separately. Despite a long research tradition on microfinance, there is still an ongoing debate on how to assess profits in a heterogeneous environment with multiple organizational objectives, the comparative advantages of public and private funders and their associated financial instruments to scale the microfinance sector and the nature of trade-offs between the financial and social objectives of microfinance institutions (MFIs). This dissertation aims to fill these gaps by analyzing social finance from an interdisciplinary perspective. The aim is to further nuance our understanding of the compatibility between financial and social objectives and how the trade-off between these two elements is moderated through financial mechanisms from donors and social investors. By analyzing the dimensions where trade-offs are most acute for social enterprises, this dissertation aims to put forth a conceptual framework to help assess profitability. Our analysis focuses on the microfinance industry, which offers a rich research setting due the wide range of institutional profiles active in the sector, including nonprofit, cooperative, for-profit and government agents and its global contributions to financial inclusion, poverty reduction and female empowerment. This dissertation is structured into three chapters, each of which addresses a different research question using different methods and units of analysis. The first chapter is a meta-analysis that uses statistical analysis of empirical research results to aggregate the existing findings on social and financial performance trade-offs as they pertain to microfinance institutions. The second chapter develops a typology of subsidy and donation instruments and then proposes a conceptual model to identify the crowding-in and crowding-out effects of public and private donors on private, commercial investors. The second chapter is complemented with an empirical analysis of a Mexican MFI, Banco Compartamos, using secondary data to suggest how the evolution of funding instruments attracted private commercial capital. Chapter three constructs a conceptual framework to identify fair profits for social enterprise, focusing on the case of microfinance. We then empirically apply the conceptual framework to an international dataset of microfinance institutions. Starting from the observation that no consensus has emerged regarding performance trade-offs between the financial and social objectives of microfinance institutions, Chapter 1 – A Meta-analysis Examining the Nature of Trade-offs in Microfinance – aggregates existing research findings to determine the dimensions of MFI performance, and study characteristics, that drive the confirmation of trade-offs. Specifically, after an initial screen of 3,299 articles, 623 empirical trade-off findings from 61 studies were coded into a dataset, where each empirical finding consists of a pairwise observation between a single financial performance variable and a single social performance variable. Using a probit model to analyze the direction and statistical significance across categories of social/financial performance and study artifacts, findings suggest that depth of outreach, cost of outreach, and efficiency indicators increase the prevalence of trade-offs, while risk indicators are associated with fewer trade-offs. Profitability indicators and outreach to women are found to have no significant effect on performance trade-offs. Study characteristics suggest that using an economic frontier methodology or publishing in development journals increases the incidence of trade-offs. These results help to understand the moderating factors that drive performance trade-offs and suggest that MFI managers and stakeholders may need to make difficult decisions regarding the social goals that may need to be sacrificed to achieve financial sustainability.Chapter 2 – Crowding-in without Crowding-out: Subsidy Design to Foster Commercialization – investigates the financial mechanisms that public and private donors have at their disposal and how they can use these instruments to attract fully commercial private capital to social enterprises. In this article, we first construct a typology to explain the ways in which private donors are complementing public donors in subsidy design. We argue that specific instruments such as corporate intangibles and credit guarantees can trigger permanent crowding-in effects that attract commercial partners, while preventing perverse effects such as crowding-out and soft budget constraints. Applying the typology and investment logics to the case of Compartamos, we observe that crowding-in and crowding-out effects can be present simultaneously, which allows us to suggest that subsidies and donations do not force path dependency towards commercialization but rather co-exist, for example attracting commercial debt investment while crowding-out commercial equity. Our research could help both private and public donors identify strategies to maximize social impact while reducing perverse mutual externalities. Finally, in the presence of performance trade-offs and donor pressures to commercialize operations and scale-up, Chapter 3 – What is an acceptable level of profit for a social enterprise? Insights from Microfinance – develops a conceptual framework for fair profits in social enterprise and then applies the framework to the microfinance industry. The fair profit framework is constructed on four dimensions: the level of profitability, the extent to which the organization adheres to its social mission, the pricing and the surplus distribution of the organization. Using a global sample of MFIs, our results suggest that satisfying all four dimensions is a difficult, although not impossible task as less than 3% of the sample fulfill all four criteria. Using our framework, we suggest that excessive profits in microfinance can be better understood relative to pricing, the social outreach of an organization, and the commitment to clients over time through reduced interest rates. This dissertation provides solid scientific evidence on the compatibility between financial and social returns in social finance. Our dissertation examines social finance through the lens of microfinance, and investigates the performance trade-offs facing MFIs as well as the moderating role of financing mechanisms to help MFIs fulfill their double-bottom-line mandate. We hope we demonstrate that the unique combination of financing technicalities significantly shape the evolution of recipient organizations. Some practical implications are also identified to help practitioners, regulators and managers navigate the ongoing debate on the compatibility of financial and social returns and the design of financial instruments for social enterprise. We firmly believe that these academic works contribute and bring new perspectives to social finance in development economics, and business ethics. / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Les aléas et les contextes contemporains des organisations de travail ont permis la conceptualisation d'une nouvelle pathologie organisationnelle :le traumatisme organisationnel. Au travers d’études de la littérature, d’études quantitatives, qualitatives et mixtes, cette thèse retrace un parcours de conceptualisation et d’opérationnalisation de la notion. La conceptualisation s’est structurée autour d’une littérature pluridisciplinaire en tentant d’aborder la question à partir de questions cliniques sociales et managériales. L’opérationnalisation s’est faites grâce au développement du premier outil de diagnostic du traumatisme organisationnel. A partir de ces deux démarches, ce manuscrit propose finalement un regard sur les questions épistémiques qui en résultent et les modes d’action envisageables. / Faced with the hazards experienced by organizations, a new form of organizational pathology has recently been conceptualized: organizational trauma. Through literature studies, quantitative, qualitative and mixed studies, this thesis traces a path of conceptualization and operationalization of the notion. The conceptualization was structured around a multidisciplinary literature, attempting to address the issue from social, managerial and clinical questions. Operationalization was achieved through the development of the first tool for diagnosing organizational trauma. Based on these two approaches, this manuscript finally proposes a look at the epistemic questions that result from them and the possible modes of action. / Doctorat en Sciences psychologiques et de l'éducation / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

La crise financière de 2008 et la recherche de ses causes profondes a donné un nouvel élan au paradigme marxiste. Cette recherche offre une analyse marxiste des trajectoires des organisations syndicales en Belgique, ainsi qu'une analyse organisationnelle inspirée de Mintzberg. Les apports principaux de l'analyse marxiste sont la prise en compte de l'historicité des organisations, de l'importance de l'idéologie et particulièrement des luttes idéologiques qui se déroulent au sein et en dehors des organisations.Les deux organisations étudiées sont les organisations syndicales chrétienne (ACV-CSC) et socialiste (ABVV-FGTB). L'origine de ces organisations repose sur un conflit d'intéret radical entre le capital et le travail. De plus, elles disposent d'une profondeur historique de plus d'un siècle, se développent dans une démocratie consociative qui privilégie le consensus au conflit, et construisent une architecture de concertation sociale dont l'évolution permet d'interroger le rôle de l’État.Les résultats de cette recherche prennent la forme d'hypothèses théoriques, vérifiées dans les cas étudiés, illustrant les apports d'une analyse marxiste, davantage dialectique et orientée sur l'analyse de classe, qui permet d'accorder davantage d'importance au rôle et à l'influence de l'idéologie au sein et en dehors des organisations.Ces hypothèses dessinent trois types de trajectoires futures pour les organisations syndicales en Belgique. La trajectoire qui sera suivie ces prochaines années dépend fortement de la façon dont les organisations syndicales – aux différents niveaux de l'organisation, opéreront un travail idéologique de recentrage sur le clivage de classe. / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

The commons is a concept increasingly used by practitioners and social activists with the promise of creating new collective wealth (Bollier & Helfrich, 2014; De Angelis, 2003; Hardt & Negri, 2009; Klein, 2001). In recent years, a variety of scholarly research explained the different ways of organizing commons (Van Laerhoven & Ostrom, 2007). To that end, many streams of inquiry have emerged in various areas: organization theory (Ansari et al. 2013; Fournier, 2013; Tedmanson et al. 2015), institutional economics (Hess, C. & Ostrom, 2011; Ostrom, 1990, 2005, 2010), political philosophy and legal studies (Dardot & Laval, 2014; Holder and Flessas, 2008; Hardt & Negri, 2009), nonprofit studies (Aligica, 2016; Bushouse et al. 2016; Lohmann, 2014, 2016) and business ethics (Argandoña, 1998; Melé, 2009, 2012; O’Brien, 2009; Sison & Fontrodona, 2012; Solomon, 2004). However, these different theories are usually conceived and used separately. Empirical research on commons has mainly focused on natural resources at local and global levels (Ansari et al. 2013; Cody et al. 2015; Cox & Ross, 2011; Galaz et al. 2012; Ostrom, 1990, 2010; Poteete et al. 2010), and also on digital and scientific resources (Benkler, 2006; Boyle, 2008; Cook‐Deegan & Dedeurwaerdere, 2006; Coriat, 2015; Hess & Ostrom, 2011). Despite a long research tradition in local community organizations, there is little empirical scientific knowledge that uses the lens of the commons to study shared resources that are neither natural nor informational in nature. This dissertation aims to fill these gaps by analyzing social finance services and organizations from an interdisciplinary perspective. The aim is to understand whether communities can create financial commons. By analyzing the processes involved, the dissertation sheds light on the social and institutional components enabling the creation of human-made commons. We focus on community organizations linked to the solidarity economy movement in Brazil. Such movement aims to promote socio-economic alternative organizations, especially for poverty alleviation and inequality reduction.More specifically, the dissertation identifies the nature of two kinds of shared financial resources––microcredit services and complementary currencies––and looks at the functioning of community arrangements that provide them, the community components mobilized for creating commons organizations, and the institutional work strategies developed by intermediary organizations to adjust the scale of these social finance services.The dissertation is structured in four chapters, each of which addresses different research questions and uses different methods and units of analysis. The first chapter is conceptual and based on a literature review on complementary currencies in order to identify the commons dimensions of seven complementary currency systems. The second chapter is an in-depth single case study of Banco Palmas, a Brazilian community bank. This chapter analyzes the transformative power of governance on private goods when managed by self-governed grassroots organizations. Chapter three is a comparative case study of five community banks that focuses on the community components involved in creating commons as a grassroots response to contested market and state institutions. The final chapter focuses on the diffusion and institutionalization of social finance in Brazil and the role played by five intermediary organizations in this process.Starting from the observation that there is no definition of financial commons, Chapter 1 – Money and the Commons: Lessons from Complementary Currencies – proposes to assess the commons dimensions of monetary systems created and managed by local organizations. Specifically, we investigate the organizational features of seven complementary currency systems by making use of two main theoretical frameworks that are usually separate: the new commons in organization studies and the common good in business ethics. The findings show that these alternative monetary systems and organizations promote the common interest through the creation of new communities and can therefore be considered as commons according to the common good framework. Nevertheless, only systems relying on collective action and self-management fulfill the new commons framework. This allows us to suggest two new categories of commons: “social commons”, which fulfills both the new commons and the common good frameworks, and the “commercial commons”, which that fulfill the common good but not the new commons framework. Building on this, we define an ethos of the commons as a principle that consists in organizing commons practices through both collective organization and ethical concern for human flourishing.Chapter 2 - A Case Study of Microfinance and Community Development Banks (CDBs) in Brazil: Private or Common Goods? - looks at how governance mechanisms of self-managed community organizations affect the characteristics of microcredit services. Based on field research in Brazil, this chapter uses Elinor Ostrom’s design principles of successful self-governing common-pool resource organizations to analyze community banks’ microcredit systems. Our results suggest that private goods could be altered when governed by community self-managed enterprises. They become hybrid goods because they mix the characteristics of private and common goods. This change is facilitated by specific organizational arrangements, such as self-governance, that emerge from grassroots dynamics and the creation of collective-choice arenas. These arrangements help strengthen the inclusion properties of nonprofit microcredit services.In order to identify what components enable commons creation, we conduct a comparative case study of five Brazilian community banks in Chapter 3 – Building Commons in Community Enterprise: The Case of Self-Managed Microfinance Organizations. We analyze how community enterprises create commons whereas market and state institutions reproduce exclusion and inequalities. Our results suggest that four components are required to establish a new organization of commons: collective decision-making, community social control, servant leadership, and desire for social change. Building on this, we develop a model of commons organization and explain why these organizations are substitutes for existing marginalizing institutions. This study contributes to the literature by examining new elements for commons creation and shedding light on the emergence of new institutional arrangements for social change. Finally, after looking at commons institutional arrangements at local level in communities, we examine how commons organizations diffuse, institutionalize and organize in networks for consolidating their activities. Chapter 4 - Institutional Change and Diffusion in Institutional Plurality: The Case of Brazil’s Solidarity Finance Sector – explains how intermediary organizations help in this process. More precisely, we analyze the institutional work strategies deployed by five intermediary organizations in the Brazilian plural institutional context, where autonomous local state agencies and banks influence community banks' activities. We show how intermediary organizations support the institutionalization of community development banks (CDBs) through diffusing these organizations in different communities, performing external institutional work with governments and public banks at national and local levels, and accomplishing internal institutional work through structuring CDBs and CDB networks. / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Le degré de compétition que rencontrent aujourd’hui les entreprises de presse pour capter l’attention de consommateurs-lecteurs sur Internet est plus élevé que jamais. Dans un écosystème numérique où l’attention est une ressource rare, les travailleurs des organisations médiatiques recourent à des outils les aidant à capter l’attention d’internautes dans le but de rencontrer les objectifs éditoriaux et commerciaux qui s’y entremêlent. Les mesures de l’audience des sites d’information font partie de ces outils. Singulièrement, elles viennent équiper le travail quotidien des journalistes en ligne et des marketeurs employés dans ces entreprises. Cette thèse porte sur les relations qu’entretiennent un collectif de journalistes en ligne et un collectif de marketeurs dans leurs usages conjoints et séparés des mesures de l’audience en ligne. L’étude se fonde sur un matériau ethnographique récolté lors d’une recherche-action de 33 mois dans une organisation médiatique privée en Belgique consacrée aux usages des mesures de l’audience en ligne par les journalistes du site d’information lecho.be et les marketeurs de la société. Après un récit de la recherche-action qui montre en quoi l’accès et l’interprétation des mesures d’audience en ligne est l’enjeu de relations de contrôle et de pouvoir entre ces travailleurs, le travail expose via une perspective diachronique le constant processus d’autonomisation réciproque auquel marketeurs et journalistes en ligne ont participé au fil de l’évolution du site d’information. Il révèle que, dans le cas d’un site d’information devenu payant, les rapports entre les deux collectifs autour des mesures de l’audience en ligne sont devenus plus fréquents au fil des années. Ensuite, l’étude montre que chaque collectif de travailleurs se sert de ces mesures pour produire des connaissances situées jugées utiles pour leur travail. Ils s’en servent pour choisir les caractéristiques à conférer au contenu d’information et à des segments de consommateurs-lecteurs auxquels le contenu est adressé dans le but de favoriser la lecture sur le site d’information et/ou l’achat d’un abonnement. Enfin, le travail révèle que les mesures de l’audience en ligne favorisent des formes de coordination entre journalistes en ligne et marketeurs, tout en leur permettant de rester des collectifs de travailleurs aux tâches quotidiennes distinctes. En revenant sur leurs usages conjoints et séparés des mesures de l’audience en ligne, l’étude expose les degrés d’intervention que des journalistes possèdent dans la définition de cibles de consommateurs d’un média et les marges de manœuvre que des marketeurs détiennent dans la fabrication du contenu d’information du média étudié.Cette thèse présente donc l’implication conjointe de journalistes en ligne et de marketeurs dans la commercialisation du journalisme, et comment ils créent ensemble de la valeur économique en s’aidant des mesures de l’audience en ligne pour faire des choix. / Doctorat en Information et communication / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

This thesis investigates what it means to view disruptive innovation as a political problem. I take my point of departure in the tendency for controversial disruptions in heavily regulated sectors, such as electronic cigarettes or hydraulic fracturing, to open regulatory spaces by challenging established expectations about how they ought to be governed. In the wake of such disruption, policy actors with a stake in the matter engage in sensemaking and discursive contests to control the meaning of the innovations in order to close the regulatory spaces by aligning them with one set of laws instead of another. I study these contests in two recent legislative initiatives of the European Union to address the disruptive potential of e-cigarettes and fracking: the 2014 revision of the Tobacco Products Directive and the 2014 Commission recommendations on unconventional fossil fuels. The research draws on 51 interviews carried out with key policy actors during and after the policy debates. I bolster this with an analysis of policy documents, press releases and scientific studies, as well as a content and network analysis of position statements in newspaper articles. I find that the strategic use of rhetoric and framing plays an important part in creating, maintaining, and entrenching opposed coalitions in both policy debates. In both case studies, the policy solution is accompanied by deteriorating levels of trust among participants, leading coalitions to engage in strategies of venue-shopping to circumvent their opponents. This underscores the significant challenges there are for policymakers to address disruptions while maintaining legitimacy. The original contribution of the thesis lies in its novel conceptualization of disruptive innovation as a political problem, its application of micro-sociological approaches to the politics of expertise and European public policy, and its practical and theoretical suggestions for how to better study periods of disruption and govern through them. / Doctorat en Sciences politiques et sociales / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished