This thesis presents a first analysis of how the South African fisheries authority (MCM) has utilised its fisheries management toolbox and governance framework in response to the emerging biological, economic and social challenges of post-apartheid fisheries in the Eastern Cape Province. Despite recognition of the socio-economic circumstances of traditional subsistence fishers in the region, the national fisheries management authority implemented a 'target resource orientated' management approach similar to that used for South Africa's rights-based commercial fisheries. Anecdotal evidence of entrenched illegal fishing for abalone, spiny lobster, and species targeted by subsistence fishers however suggested that MCM's management approach was encountering serious problems, as the needs and circumstances of inshore fishers and fishing communities were not adequately being understood and addressed. A review of fisheries management literature therefore shaped the hypothesis that an underlying governance problem was responsible for the symptoms of management failure being observed. In this regard, management is seen as more concerned with the technical and regulatory measures of the day-to-day operations of regulated fisheries, while fisheries governance needs to take account of "the sum of legal, social, economic and political arrangements used to manage fisheries ... ". Thus, governance includes policy making and management decision-making, with simultaneous recognition of issues outside of the fisheries sector. It thus appeared that the underlying problem was rather one of broader fisheries governance and inappropriate governance objectives with consequent inappropriate resource management arrangements. This thesis set out to gather evidence to test this hypothesis.

Small-scale fisheries employ many millions of people around the world, and are particularly important in developing countries, where the dependency on marine resources is high and livelihood diversification options are scarce. In many areas of the world however, small-scale fisheries are at risk which threatens the food security and wellbeing of coastal people. Small-scale fisheries management has in many cases been insufficient and new comprehensive approaches are recommended to achieve social-ecological sustainability in the long-term. The aim of this thesis is to analyze empirically how social-ecological elements of seagrass-associated small-scale fisheries in the Western Indian Ocean region can be addressed for a transformation from the current mostly degraded state to more sustainable social-ecological systems and secure future livelihoods. The main method used was semi-structured interviews with local fishers. The main findings show the crucial contributions seagrass-associated small-scale fisheries make to food security and income generation and highlight the need to acknowledge the social-ecological importance of seagrasses in the seascape (Paper I). A discrepancy between low societal gains of the fishing of sea urchin predator fish species and their crucial importance in the food web (in controlling sea urchin populations and the associated grazing pressure on seagrasses) was identified (Paper II). These results suggest catch-and-release practice of sea urchin predator fish species, which could contribute to more balanced predator – sea urchin – seagrass food webs in the long run. The use of illegal dragnets was identified as a major threat to local seagrass meadows (Paper IV). Institutional elements influencing the use of such destructive dragnet were identified to be normative, cultural-cognitive and economic, which constitutes an institutional misfit to the current emphasis on regulative elements in a hierarchical manner (Paper III). Concerning future co-management initiatives, gear restrictions and education were the favoured management measures among all fishers (Paper IV). A majority of fishers were willing to participate in monitoring and controls, and most fishers thought they themselves and their communities would benefit most from seagrass-specific management. These findings highlight the need for actions on multiple scales, being the local-, management-, policy- and governance levels. The suggested actions include: education and exchange of ecological and scientific knowledge, gear management including the cessation of dragnet fishing, strengthening of local institutions, an active participation of fishers in enforcement of existing rules and regulations and an introduction of adequate alternative livelihood options. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 1: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

The fishery is a complex and dynamic socio-ecological system involving several actors and knowledge areas. Along the Brazilian coast the small-scale fisheries are very common and provide important ecosystem services. This fishery modality are usually data-poor in terms of catch and abundance data, landing records, quantification of vessels and fishing gear used. This data-limited condition frequently hampers fishery assessments and effective managements. That is the case in the Abrolhos Bank, East Brazil, a wide portion of the shallow continental shelf that encompass a complex benthic habitat with coral reefs, rhodoliths, buracas, mangroves, seaweed banks and with a great biodiversity. Over this area the small-scale fisheries are a traditional activity, extremely diverse in terms of exploitation capacity, fishing gears, target stocks and operating areas. On the Abrolhos Bank, snappers and groupers are very common resources, besides being predators important for the ecosystem equilibrium. However, these stocks are not evaluated or continuously monitored in the fishing landings and any regional fishery management is currently in place. The overall goal of this thesis was to elucidate questions on three snappers (Lutjanus jocu, Lutjanus synagris and Ocyurus chrysurus) and three groupers (Cephalopholis fulva, Epinephelus morio and Mycteroperca bonaci) fishery characteristics, impacts and sustainability in the Abrolhos Bank. The specific objectives were (1) to assess, organize, and analyze these fisheries to find out patterns on stocks occurrence, on fishing fleets and fishing areas, and to propose management units; (2) to examine the abundance trends and the exploitation status of the six stocks through indicators of size, biomass landed, mortality, spawning and yield, and (3) to evaluate the stocks risk to overexploitation and their fishery sustainability considering biological, environmental social and economic aspects. The study was conducted in four coastal communities of the Abrolhos Bank. The data were obtained by interviews with fishers, experts and stakeholders, from fishery landings monitoring databases, by specimens\' measures in landings and from literature. Groups of stocks co-occurring in landings and groups of stocks co-occurring in fishing grounds were discovered. Seven similar fishing areas were determined and suggested as spatial management units. Overfishing and decline in the relative abundance were detected to five stocks. The major causes of overfishing were high fishing mortality, low spawning potential ratio, low mega-spawners and high juveniles in landings. The fishery has led some stocks on alert to overexploitation and the results revealed that coral reefs habitat and ecosystem are also threaten by mining waste and dredging. Furthermore, there is a weak environmental governance in the region and insufficient community participation in the construction of management proposals. The results reveal a concerning situation regarding the stocks exploitation status but provide the key points to be worked on together the fishing communities. This thesis emphasizes the need for urgent elaboration of fishery regulation measures in the region and may contribute in the delineating of management proposals in this complex and threatened fishery system. / A pesca é um sistema sócio ecológico complexo e dinâmico, envolvendo vários atores e áreas de conhecimento. Ao longo da costa brasileira as pescarias de pequena escala são muito comuns e provém importantes serviços ecossistêmicos. Essa modalidade de pesca frequentemente é pobre em dados de captura e abundância, registros de desembarques, quantificação de embarcações e de artes de pesca utilizadas. Essa condição frequentemente dificulta avaliações pesqueiras e o manejo eficaz. Isso ocorre no Banco dos Abrolhos, leste do Brasil, uma ampla porção da plataforma continental rasa que compreende um complexo habitat bentônico com recifes de corais, rodolitos, buracas, mangues, bancos de algas e com grande biodiversidade. Nesta área, a pesca de pequena escala é uma atividade tradicional extremamente diversificada em termos de capacidade de explotação, artes de pesca, estoques alvo e áreas de operação. No Banco dos Abrolhos vermelhos e garoupas são recursos muito comuns, além de predadores importantes para o equilíbrio do ecossistema. No entanto, estes estoques não são avaliados ou monitorados nos desembarques pesqueiros, e nenhuma gestão pesqueira regional está atualmente em vigor. O objetivo geral desta tese foi elucidar questões sobre as características, impactos e sustentabilidade da pesca de três vermelhos (Lutjanus jocu, Lutjanus synagris and Ocyurus chrysurus) e três garoupas (Cephalopholis fulva, Epinephelus morio and Mycteroperca bonaci) no Banco dos Abrolhos. Os objetivos específicos foram (1) avaliar, organizar e analisar essas pescarias para descobrir padrões de ocorrência de estoques, padrões de frotas e áreas de pesca, e propor unidades de manejo; (2) examinar as tendências na abundância e o status de explotação dos seis estoques por meio de indicadores de tamanho, biomassa desembarcada, mortalidade, desova e rendimento; e (3) avaliar o risco de sobreexplotação dos estoques e a sustentabilidade pesqueira considerando aspectos biológicos, ambientais, sociais e econômicos. O estudo foi realizado em quatro comunidades costeiras do Banco dos Abrolhos. Os dados foram obtidos em entrevistas com pescadores e especialistas locais, em bases de dados de monitoramentos pesqueiros, em medições de espécimes em desembarques e na literatura. Grupos de estoques co-ocorrendo em desembarques e grupos de estoques co-ocorrendo em áreas de pesca foram descobertos. Sete áreas de pesca semelhantes foram determinadas e sugeridas como unidades de manejo espaciais. Sobrepesca e declínio na abundância relativa foram detectados em cinco estoques. As principais causas da sobrepesca foram alta mortalidade por pesca, baixo potencial de desova, poucos mega-reprodutores e muitos juvenis nos desembarques. A pesca deixou alguns estoques em alerta de sobreexplotação e os resultados revelaram que o habitat recifal e o ecossistema são ameaçados também por resíduos de mineração e pela dragagem. Além disso, a governança ambiental na região é fraca e a participação comunitária em propostas de gestão é insuficiente. Os resultados revelam uma situação preocupante quanto ao estado de exploração dos estoques, mas fornecem os pontos-chave a serem trabalhados em conjunto com as comunidades pesqueiras. Esta tese enfatiza a necessidade de elaboração urgente de medidas de regulação pesqueira na região e pode contribuir para o delineamento de propostas de manejo neste complexo e ameaçado sistema pesqueiro.

The fishery is a complex and dynamic socio-ecological system involving several actors and knowledge areas. Along the Brazilian coast the small-scale fisheries are very common and provide important ecosystem services. This fishery modality are usually data-poor in terms of catch and abundance data, landing records, quantification of vessels and fishing gear used. This data-limited condition frequently hampers fishery assessments and effective managements. That is the case in the Abrolhos Bank, East Brazil, a wide portion of the shallow continental shelf that encompass a complex benthic habitat with coral reefs, rhodoliths, buracas, mangroves, seaweed banks and with a great biodiversity. Over this area the small-scale fisheries are a traditional activity, extremely diverse in terms of exploitation capacity, fishing gears, target stocks and operating areas. On the Abrolhos Bank, snappers and groupers are very common resources, besides being predators important for the ecosystem equilibrium. However, these stocks are not evaluated or continuously monitored in the fishing landings and any regional fishery management is currently in place. The overall goal of this thesis was to elucidate questions on three snappers (Lutjanus jocu, Lutjanus synagris and Ocyurus chrysurus) and three groupers (Cephalopholis fulva, Epinephelus morio and Mycteroperca bonaci) fishery characteristics, impacts and sustainability in the Abrolhos Bank. The specific objectives were (1) to assess, organize, and analyze these fisheries to find out patterns on stocks occurrence, on fishing fleets and fishing areas, and to propose management units; (2) to examine the abundance trends and the exploitation status of the six stocks through indicators of size, biomass landed, mortality, spawning and yield, and (3) to evaluate the stocks risk to overexploitation and their fishery sustainability considering biological, environmental social and economic aspects. The study was conducted in four coastal communities of the Abrolhos Bank. The data were obtained by interviews with fishers, experts and stakeholders, from fishery landings monitoring databases, by specimens\' measures in landings and from literature. Groups of stocks co-occurring in landings and groups of stocks co-occurring in fishing grounds were discovered. Seven similar fishing areas were determined and suggested as spatial management units. Overfishing and decline in the relative abundance were detected to five stocks. The major causes of overfishing were high fishing mortality, low spawning potential ratio, low mega-spawners and high juveniles in landings. The fishery has led some stocks on alert to overexploitation and the results revealed that coral reefs habitat and ecosystem are also threaten by mining waste and dredging. Furthermore, there is a weak environmental governance in the region and insufficient community participation in the construction of management proposals. The results reveal a concerning situation regarding the stocks exploitation status but provide the key points to be worked on together the fishing communities. This thesis emphasizes the need for urgent elaboration of fishery regulation measures in the region and may contribute in the delineating of management proposals in this complex and threatened fishery system. / A pesca é um sistema sócio ecológico complexo e dinâmico, envolvendo vários atores e áreas de conhecimento. Ao longo da costa brasileira as pescarias de pequena escala são muito comuns e provém importantes serviços ecossistêmicos. Essa modalidade de pesca frequentemente é pobre em dados de captura e abundância, registros de desembarques, quantificação de embarcações e de artes de pesca utilizadas. Essa condição frequentemente dificulta avaliações pesqueiras e o manejo eficaz. Isso ocorre no Banco dos Abrolhos, leste do Brasil, uma ampla porção da plataforma continental rasa que compreende um complexo habitat bentônico com recifes de corais, rodolitos, buracas, mangues, bancos de algas e com grande biodiversidade. Nesta área, a pesca de pequena escala é uma atividade tradicional extremamente diversificada em termos de capacidade de explotação, artes de pesca, estoques alvo e áreas de operação. No Banco dos Abrolhos vermelhos e garoupas são recursos muito comuns, além de predadores importantes para o equilíbrio do ecossistema. No entanto, estes estoques não são avaliados ou monitorados nos desembarques pesqueiros, e nenhuma gestão pesqueira regional está atualmente em vigor. O objetivo geral desta tese foi elucidar questões sobre as características, impactos e sustentabilidade da pesca de três vermelhos (Lutjanus jocu, Lutjanus synagris and Ocyurus chrysurus) e três garoupas (Cephalopholis fulva, Epinephelus morio and Mycteroperca bonaci) no Banco dos Abrolhos. Os objetivos específicos foram (1) avaliar, organizar e analisar essas pescarias para descobrir padrões de ocorrência de estoques, padrões de frotas e áreas de pesca, e propor unidades de manejo; (2) examinar as tendências na abundância e o status de explotação dos seis estoques por meio de indicadores de tamanho, biomassa desembarcada, mortalidade, desova e rendimento; e (3) avaliar o risco de sobreexplotação dos estoques e a sustentabilidade pesqueira considerando aspectos biológicos, ambientais, sociais e econômicos. O estudo foi realizado em quatro comunidades costeiras do Banco dos Abrolhos. Os dados foram obtidos em entrevistas com pescadores e especialistas locais, em bases de dados de monitoramentos pesqueiros, em medições de espécimes em desembarques e na literatura. Grupos de estoques co-ocorrendo em desembarques e grupos de estoques co-ocorrendo em áreas de pesca foram descobertos. Sete áreas de pesca semelhantes foram determinadas e sugeridas como unidades de manejo espaciais. Sobrepesca e declínio na abundância relativa foram detectados em cinco estoques. As principais causas da sobrepesca foram alta mortalidade por pesca, baixo potencial de desova, poucos mega-reprodutores e muitos juvenis nos desembarques. A pesca deixou alguns estoques em alerta de sobreexplotação e os resultados revelaram que o habitat recifal e o ecossistema são ameaçados também por resíduos de mineração e pela dragagem. Além disso, a governança ambiental na região é fraca e a participação comunitária em propostas de gestão é insuficiente. Os resultados revelam uma situação preocupante quanto ao estado de exploração dos estoques, mas fornecem os pontos-chave a serem trabalhados em conjunto com as comunidades pesqueiras. Esta tese enfatiza a necessidade de elaboração urgente de medidas de regulação pesqueira na região e pode contribuir para o delineamento de propostas de manejo neste complexo e ameaçado sistema pesqueiro.

A pesca artesanal de pequena escala representa a principal fonte de proteína animal e tem um importante papel na atividade econômica das populações que dela dependem. Entretanto, a pesca de pequena escala também pode levar à diminuição dos estoques pesqueiros. Estratégias de manejo da pesca de pequena escala costumam se dar em diferentes níveis de organização: individual, comunitário e regional. Devido à limitação logística e financeira que as instituições de manejo da pesca enfrentam, é necessário direcionar os esforços para aprimorar o manejo. O objetivo deste trabalho é determinar em qual escala espacial de manejo o desembarque pesqueiro no Rio Tapajós (Amazônia brasileira) é mais influenciado. Onze comunidades ribeirinhas pertencentes a diferentes categorias de unidades de conservação de uso sustentável tiveram seus pescadores entrevistados. Os desembarques foram avaliados por meio da biomassa capturada, da captura por unidade de esforço (CPUE) e do rendimento econômico potencial. No total, 2013 desembarques pesqueiros, de 51 pescadores, durante 12 meses foram analisados. As variáveis com mais importância sobre a biomassa de peixes, a CPUE e o rendimento potencial foram aquelas correspondentes a escala espacial de manejo individual ligadas ao comportamento do pescador, juntamente com variáveis ambientais. Portanto, os resultados obtidos neste trabalho indicam que o manejo da pesca deve priorizar regras que influenciam o comportamento do pescador em face das características ambientais locais. / Small-scale artisanal fisheries represent the main source of animal protein and play an important role in the economic activity of the populations that depend on it. However, small-scale fisheries can also lead to decline of fish stocks. Small-scale fisheries management strategies tend to occur at different levels of organization: individual, communitarian and regional (groups of interest). Due to the logistical and financial limitations of fisheries management institutions, it is necessary to direct the efforts to improve management. The objective of this research is to determine in which spatial scale of management influence most the fish landings in the Tapajós River (Brazilian Amazon). Eleven riverine communities belonging to different categories of conservation units were sampled. Landings were assessed using the biomass of fish caught, catch per unit effort (CPUE) and potential economic yield. In total, 2013 fish landings of 51 fishermen during 12 months were analyzed. The variables with more importance on fish biomass, CPUE and potential yield were those corresponding to the spatial scale of individual linked to the fisherman’s behavior and environmental variables. Therefore, the results obtained in this study indicate that fisheries management should prioritize rules that influence the fisher’s behavior related to the local environmental characteristics.

Currently, there is widespread debate regarding the overall status of the world's fisheries, with some researchers projecting their total collapse in only a few decades, and others concluding the situation is not quite as bleak. Additional debates include what strategies should be used to manage fisheries at various scales, and further research is needed to determine which strategies are most appropriate for use in particular situations and locales, as context is critical. Recently, prominent common pool resources scholars have expressed the need for ethnographic approaches to studying resource management institutions in order to move beyond the current focus of simply identifying the factors and conditions that lead to the self-organization of resource users and long-term sustainability of management institutions. These authors describe the need for examining the larger context in which management institutions exist and taking various historical, political, and sociocultural factors into account when examining common pool resources. This dissertation is a response to that request. This research is the result of over 20 months of ethnographic research in St. Croix, United States Virgin Islands (USVI). Drawing on research in political ecology and building on anthropological critiques of common pool resource institutions, I describe the historical, social, and political factors that influence how fisheries management occurs at the federal and territorial levels, and how commercial fishers, managers, and other stakeholders experience and participate in multi-scale management processes. Ethnographic data suggest that there are a variety of historical, social, and political factors that influence how commercial fishers, managers, and other stakeholders perceive the federal fisheries management process, the extent of their participation in that process, as well as interactions within and between stakeholder groups. Additionally, the mismatch that exists between the centralized management structure of the US federal system and the small-scale, multi-method nature of St. Croix's fishery creates a complex management environment in which few stakeholders participate.

Η μικρή παράκτια αλιεία αποτελεί σημαντικό τμήμα του αλιευτικού κλάδου στnν Ελλάδα και τη Μεσόγειο και χαρακτηρίζεται από υψηλή ετερογένεια και πληθώρα ιδιαιτεροτήτων. Η διαχείριση της απαιτεί την εξέταση βιολογικών, αλλά και κοινωνικών και οικονομικών παραμέτρων. Στην παρούσα εργασία αναπτύχθηκε μία τυπολογία της ελληνικής μικρής παράκτιας αλιείας με βάση βιολογικά, κοινωνικά και οικονομικά χαρακτηριστικά. Στη συνέχεια η εργασία εστιάστηκε στον Πατραϊκό Κόλπο, όπου μελετήθηκε η δραστηριότητα της τοπικής μικρής παράκτιας αλιείας, η συνολική παραγωγή και η παραγωγή ανά μονάδα αλιευτικής προσπάθειας, η σύνθεση του αλιεύματος, τα απορριπτόμενα και η κατά μήκος σύνθεση των αλιευμάτων. Οι νομοί της Ελλάδας στρωματοποιήθηκαν βάσει του αριθμού των αλιέων και της εξάρτησης από την αλιεία και πραγματοποιήθηκαν συνεντεύξεις αλιέων. Επιβεβαιώθηκε η ποικιλία εργαλείων και ειδών-στόχων και η έντονη χωρική ετερογένεια. Το κυρίαρχο πρότυπο αλιευτικής δραστηριότητας εμφάνισε εποχικές διακυμάνσεις (20 ημέρες δραστηριότητας μηνιαίως το καλοκαίρι, 13 ημέρες το χειμώνα), παρουσίασε όμως τοπικές ιδιαιτερότητες. Οι κύριες ενασχολήσεις (métiers) που πραγματοποιούνται σε πανελλήνιο επίπεδο αναγνωρίστηκαν ως συνδυασμοί αλιευτικού εργαλείου, είδους-στόχου, εποχής και περιοχής με πολυμεταβλητή ανάλυση. Οι αλιείς παρουσίασαν χαμηλό μορφωτικό επίπεδο και υψηλή μέση ηλικία, υψηλά ποσοστά παραμονής στον τόπο γέννησης και διαπιστώθηκε έντονη παρουσία της οικογένειας στο επάγγελμα. Οι αλιείς χωρίστηκαν σε τρεις ομάδες εξάρτησης από την αλιεία βάσει του ποσοστού του εισοδήματος που προέρχεται από το ψάρεμα, οι οποίες εμφάνισαν διαφορές σε χαρακτηριστικά όπως η μέση ηλικία, το μήκος του σκάφους, οι ημέρες δραστηριότητας και το εισόδημα από το ψάρεμα. Στη συνέχεια μελετήθηκε η μικρή παράκτια αλιεία του Πατραϊκού Κόλπου με δειγματοληψίες σε αλιευτικές εξορμήσεις. Η αλιευτική παραγωγή ήταν κατά μέσο όρο 12 Kg ανά αλιευτική εξόρμηση. Συνολικά, αναγνωρίστηκαν 102 είδη αλιευμάτων. Αναπτύχθηκε μία μεθοδολογία αναγνώρισης ενασχολήσεων σε περιπτώσεις περιορισμένου αριθμού δεδομένων, όπως συχνά συμβαίνει στη Μεσόγειο. Οι ενασχολήσεις που αναγνωρίστηκαν παρουσίασαν διαφορές στην ποσότητα και στη σύνθεση του αλιεύματος και ομαδοποιήθηκαν σε μετα-ενασχολήσεις με σκοπό την αποτελεσματικότερη δειγματοληψία της αλιευτικής δραστηριότητας. Η μελέτη των απορριπτομένων ανέδειξε τρεις αιτίες απόρριψης: χαμηλή εμπορικότητα (78% της απορριφθείσας ποσότητας), καταστροφή των αλιευμάτων κατά την παραμονή τους στο νερό (5%) και μείωση της ποιότητάς τους εξαιτίας κακών χειρισμών του ψαρά (17%). Υψηλό ποσοστό απόρριψης παρουσίασαν οι ενασχολήσεις παραγαδιών και μανωμένων διχτύων με μικρό άνοιγμα ματιού. Από τα δεδομένα ατομικού μήκους των αλιευμάτων πραγματοποιήθηκαν συγκρίσεις κατά μήκους σύνθεσης ανάμεσα σε διαφορετικές ενασχολήσεις και εποχές του έτους. Στις περισσότερες περιπτώσεις διαπιστώθηκαν διαφορές. Η μελέτη της επίπτωσης της εφαρμογής του ελάχιστου επιτρεπόμενου μεγέθους εκφόρτωσης έδειξε μικρό ποσοστό υπομεγεθών ατόμων στο αλίευμα βάσει τόσο των σημερινών σε ισχύ μεγεθών όσο και βάσει αυτών που πρόκειται να εφαρμοστούν σύμφωνα με τον Οδικό Χάρτη για την Αναθεώρηση της Κοινής Αλιευτικής Πολιτικής, σε επίπεδο είδους όμως παρουσιάστηκαν εξαιρέσεις. Η παρούσα εργασία αποτελεί τη βάση για την ανάπτυξη μεθοδολογίας για τη μελέτη της μικρής παράκτιας αλιείας στην Ελλάδα και την πραγματοποίηση συγκριτικών μελετών σε ευρωπαϊκή κλίμακα σε αυτόν τον λίγο μελετημένο αλιευτικό κλάδο. / Small-scale fisheries are an important fisheries sector in Greece and the Mediterranean. They are characterized by high heterogeneity and a multitude of particularities. The management of small-scale fisheries requires taking into account biological as well as social and economical elements. In the present study, a typology of Greek small-scale fisheries was developed based on biological, social and economical parameters. Consequently, the study focused in the Patraikos Gulf, where elements such as the fishing activity of the local fleet, catch and catch per unit of effort, species composition, discards and length composition of individuals caught were examined. The prefectures of Greece were stratified considering the number of fishermen and local dependence on fisheries and interviews of fishermen were carried out. The multitude of fishing gears and target species and the intense spatial heterogeneity was confirmed. The major activity pattern identified was seasonal (20 days of activity in summer, 13 in winter), however local particularities arose. The main métiers practiced were identified as combinations of fishing gear, target species, area and season. Concerning socio-economical elements, the fishermen generally had low education, high average age, tendency to remain in their place of birth and the profession is attached to the family. The fishermen were categorized into three dependence groups, based on the percentage of income originating from fisheries. Significant differences were identified among these groups considering variables such as mean fishermen age, vessel size, days of activity and income from fishing. Consequently, the small-scale fisheries of the Patraikos Gulf were studied using data from sampling of fishing operations. The catch weighted about 12 Kg per operation on average and a total of 102 species were recorded. A methodology for the identification of métiers using a limited dataset, as is often the case in the Mediterranean, was developed. The métiers identified showed significant differences in catch quantity and composition and were grouped in meta-métiers to facilitate fishing activity sampling schemes. The study of discards revealed three reasons for discarding: low commercial value (78% of discards), destruction of the catch before gear retrieval (5%) and bad handling of the catch o board (17%). High discard ratio was recorded for the longline and small-size mesh trammel net métiers. Using data of individual length per species comparisons were carried out among métiers and seasons that in most cases revealed significant differences. The study of the effect of minimum landing sizes legislation showed a low percentage of undersized individuals regarding both the legislation currently in effect and the proposed one by the Roadmap for the Reform of the Common Fisheries Policy of the European Union, but exceptions arose for certain species. The present work is the foothold for the development of a methodology for studying small-scale fisheries in Greece and for carrying out comparative studies in a European scale concerning this understudied fishing sector.

In upcoming decades, the conservation and sustainable use of coastal and marine resources will become a major political and environmental challenge, as two-thirds of the world's population lives in coastal zones. The issue will likely become more problematic in developing countries, where an important number of coastal inhabitants still rely on marginal extractive activities such as fishing, farming and cattle ranching for subsistence, and where the rural poor's demand for development often lead to unsustainable extractive practices. Thus, innovative solutions need to be developed to ensure the long-term conservation and sound management of marine and coastal resources. This Masters thesis addresses the case of Coiba National Park, a marine protected area located in the Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama, and its relationship with coastal fishing and farming communities located at its outskirt. Particularly, this thesis aims to discover the drivers that pushed an important number of coastal agro-pastoralists of Coiba National Park's buffer zone to switch to artisanal fishing over the past three decades, and to determine the social, economic, and environmental impacts that resulted from that switch. In addition, this thesis analyses the relationship between Coiba National Park's authorities and buffer zone communities, and how this relationship has evolved over the years as more and more resource-users exploit the marine resources of the park. Finally, this work analyses Coiba National Park's current management strategy, how park authorities have been able to adapt their planning and management activities over the years, and explores alternatives to improve Coiba National Park's management strategy so that it can better adapt to the ever changing social, economic, and environmental conditions in which Coiba National Park's buffer zone operates.

Submitted by Gabriel Martim Jacintho Ribeiro (gabrielmjr@hotmail.com) on 2017-03-20T14:36:38Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação FGV_Gabriel Ribeiro_Final.pdf: 3351423 bytes, checksum: 0ef01ccd8af9194bdc19ecbf32be4e9b (MD5) / Rejected by Pamela Beltran Tonsa (pamela.tonsa@fgv.br), reason: Conforme conversamos precisa dos ajustes. Att Pâmela Tonsa on 2017-03-20T15:19:35Z (GMT) / Submitted by Gabriel Martim Jacintho Ribeiro (gabrielmjr@hotmail.com) on 2017-03-20T15:27:26Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação FGV_Gabriel Ribeiro_Final.pdf: 3353327 bytes, checksum: 0b2fba36e644721b006f2502d8151bfa (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Pamela Beltran Tonsa (pamela.tonsa@fgv.br) on 2017-03-20T15:38:55Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação FGV_Gabriel Ribeiro_Final.pdf: 3353327 bytes, checksum: 0b2fba36e644721b006f2502d8151bfa (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-03-20T15:47:08Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação FGV_Gabriel Ribeiro_Final.pdf: 3353327 bytes, checksum: 0b2fba36e644721b006f2502d8151bfa (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-02-22 / Despite being one of the oldest activities carried out by man and having an enormous socioeconomic importance for Brazil, fishing industry, mainly the small-scale fisheries, is still quite neglected from national political processes. Following the country's agro-export vein, the federal government's growing orientation towards increasing production through aquaculture and industrial fishing seems to be an incompatible strategy, both with the characteristics of the natural reproductive forces of the South Atlantic Ocean (in which the brazilian coast is situated) and with the social reality of the fisheries sector, which employs almost 1 million workers (more than 90% working in small-scale fisheries). The disorderly institutionalization of a national plan for the fishing industry is reflected in the other federative entities. As an economic activity, of an extractive nature, and carried out in public domain territory, marine capture fisheries are pressured (i) economically - by competition with industrial fisheries; and (ii) territorially - by other economic activities at sea, by the impacts of increasing coastal urbanization and by the rules and laws imposed by environmental conservation agencies, at different levels of the federation. Recent, but scarce, studies seek to understand, punctually, the effects of certain public policies, or comanagement systems, with a view from the territory where the activity occurs. However, it is understood that looking at the development of small-scale fisheries should also consider the economic, environmental and social dimensions, but mainly incorporate a better understanding of the forces acting in the local context. In order to contribute to this discussion, and incorporating the political dimension, the research question that guided this dissertation was: How the processes of interaction between different social groups (government and civil society), in a local context, influence the development of small-scale fisheries? In order to answer it, a bibliographical review was made respecting the contributions, among others, from the fields of sociology, anthropology, economics, agronomy and sustainable development. There was also a historical reconstitution of the federal institutionalization around fisheries industry, a characterization of the small-scale fisheries sector and the main policies and instances of participation for the sector. From this point, was adopted the critical-constructivist theoretical model proposed by Pozzebon et al. (2009) in order to deepend into the case study chosen: the municipality of Ubatuba-SP. The research findings point to the issue around the configuration of Brazilian federalism as an obstacle to the creation, implementation and coordination of policies for the sector, which also weakens the institutional arrangements in a subnational context. Thus, the integration of local actors is hampered by a dependence on federal policies to subsidize and organize the activity. It is also noted that the experiences of political decentralization around the coastal planning and the shared management of the marine environment, by the way they were implemented and by their consultative character in which the final decisions are in the hand of the State of São Paulo, do not seem sufficiently capable of strengthen small-scale fisheries locally. / Apesar de ser uma das mais antigas atividades exercidas pelo homem e ter uma enorme importância socioeconômica para o Brasil, a atividade pesqueira, principalmente a modalidade artesanal, ainda é bastante alijada dos processos políticos nacionais. Seguindo a veia agroexportadora do país, a crescente orientação dada, pelo governo federal, para o aumento produtivo por meio da aquicultura e da pesca industrial parece uma estratégia incompatível, tanto com as características das forças reprodutivas naturais do litoral brasileiro, quanto com a realidade social do setor que emprega quase 1 milhão de trabalhadores (mais de 90%, atuam na modalidade artesanal). A desordenada institucionalização da política nacional para o setor se reflete nos demais entes federativos. Como atividade econômica de caráter extrativista, e realizada em território de domínio público, a pesca de captura marinha é pressionada (i) economicamente - pela competição com a pesca industrial; e (ii) territorialmente - por outras atividades econômicas atuantes no mar, pelos impactos da crescente urbanização costeira e pelas regras e legislações impostas pelos órgãos de conservação ambiental, em diferentes níveis da federação. No entanto, são ainda escassos e pontuais os estudos que buscam compreender os efeitos de determinadas políticas públicas e/ou dos sistemas de cogestão, com olhar a partir do território onde ocorre a atividade. Entende-se que o olhar para o desenvolvimento da pesca artesanal deva considerar, igualmente, as dimensões econômica, ambiental e social, mas principalmente incorporar uma melhor compreensão das forças atuantes no em contexto local. A fim de contribuir para essa discussão, e incorporando a dimensão política, a pergunta de pesquisa que norteou essa dissertação foi: Como os processos de interação entre diferentes grupos sociais (governo e sociedade civil), em contexto local, influenciam o desenvolvimento da pesca artesanal? Para respondê-la foi feita uma revisão bibliográfica respeitando as contribuições, dentre outras, dos campos da sociologia, antropologia, economia, agronomia e desenvolvimento sustentável. Foi feita também uma reconstrução histórica da política nacional para a pesca, uma caracterização do setor pesqueiro artesanal e das principais políticas públicas e instâncias de participação para o setor. A partir dessa revisão foi adotado o modelo teórico crítico-construtivista proposto por Pozzebon et al. (2009) para debruçar-se sobre o estudo de caso escolhido: o município de Ubatuba-SP. Os achados da pesquisa apontam a questão da configuração do federalismo brasileiro como um entrave para a criação, implementação e coordenação das políticas para o setor, o que enfraquece os arranjos institucionais em contexto subnacional. Dificultado, assim, a integração entre atores locais e legando-os à uma dependência das políticas federais para subsídio e ordenamento da atividade. Nota-se, ainda, que as experiências de descentralização política em torno do ordenamento costeiro e da gestão compartilhada do ambiente marinho, pela forma como foram implementadas e por seu caráter consultivo com as decisões na mão do ente estadual paulista, não parecem suficientemente capazes de fortalecer a pesca artesanal.

Pescarias tropicais são consideradas multiespecíficas, mas podem apresentar diferentes níveis de seletividade. A falta de longas séries temporais de dados pesqueiros, principalmente em ecossistemas tropicais, prejudica a avaliação das mudanças e impactos relacionados à pesca. A explotação pesqueira em ambientes tropicais está associada ao processo de substituição das maiores espécies por espécies de menor porte (fishing down process). O conhecimento ecológico local (CEL) de pescadores tem sido aplicado em estudos de ecologia, distribuição e abundância atual e passada de peixes para avaliar a conservação de espécies, de ecossistemas e na elaboração de normas de manejo. O objetivo da tese é analisar os padrões de seletividade da pesca continental da Amazônia através de dados secundários, investigar mudanças na abundância e composição das espécies capturadas no Baixo Rio Tapajós ao longo do tempo, bem como propor uma abordagem de manejo pesqueiro baseado no conhecimento ecológico local dos pescadores, registrados através de entrevistas e desembarques pesqueiros (dados primários). Analisamos a seletividade de pescarias em 46 locais ao longo da Bacia Amazônica, através da proporção da biomassa das principais espécies capturadas, proveniente de 15 estudos científicos já publicados. Entrevistamos 203 pescadores e 51 deles realizaram o monitoramento participativo de suas pescarias durante um ano, em 11 comunidades do Baixo Rio Tapajós. Analisamos o CEL de pescadores sobre possíveis mudanças na abundância e composição; tamanho e época reprodutiva das espécies de peixes mais capturadas, relacionando à literatura cientifica e desembarques pesqueiros. Avaliamos o nível de conservação dos recursos pesqueiros em três diferentes categorias de Unidades de Conservação (UCs), com diferentes tempos de criação. A maioria das pescarias Amazônicas foram consideradas moderadamente seletivas. Onze espécies de peixes (nove delas migratórias) têm recebido maior pressão de pesca nas regiões Amazônicas (Capítulo 1). A composição das espécies mais capturadas variou temporalmente no Baixo Rio Tapajós, apresentando tendência de diminuição das maiores espécies como o pirarucu (Arapaima gigas), tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) e tucunaré (Cichla spp.). O tempo de criação das UCs na Amazônia apresentou influência positiva na conservação das espécies, enquanto que a proximidade e o acesso ao mercado consumidor apresentaram influência negativa (Capítulo 2). Pescadores citam tamanhos reprodutivos das espécies de acordo com os tamanhos registrados na literatura científica. Pescadores citam o período reprodutivo das espécies de acordo com desembarques pesqueiros, mas parcialmente de acordo com a literatura (Capítulo 3). O CEL dos pescadores mostrou-se eficiente na avaliação do tamanho reprodutivo e mudança da composição das espécies explotadas ao longo do tempo, identificando o “fishing down process” no Baixo Rio Tapajós. O manejo dos recursos pesqueiros na Amazônia e no Baixo Rio Tapajós pode ser direcionado às principais espécies e deve considerar o conhecimento das populações locais de duas maneiras: a) abordagem ecossistêmica integrada direcionada a espécies migratórias e áreas de vulnerabilidade; e b) incentivo aos sistemas de co-manejo locais, onde os pescadores participam da elaboração, implementação e fiscalização das normas de pesca baseadas em seu conhecimento sobre os recursos, podendo focar no manejo de espécies sedentárias e na proteção de lagos e igarapés próximos às comunidades ribeirinhas. / Tropical fisheries are considered multi-species, but these fisheries may show different degrees of selectiveness. The lack of long-term fisheries data, mainly in tropical ecosystems, affects the assessment of changes and impacts related to fisheries. The fisheries exploitation in tropical environments is associated to the process of replacing the larger species by smaller species, called fishing down process. The Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) of fishers have been applied to studies of ecology, distribution and current and past abundance of fishes to assess the conservation of species and ecosystems and in the development of management rules. The goal of this thesis is to analyze the patterns of selectivity of the inland fisheries of the Amazon through secondary data, to investigate changes over time in the abundance and composition of species caught in the Lower Tapajós River, as well as, to propose an approach to fisheries management based to fishers’ LEK, recorded by interviews and fish landings (primary data). The selectivity of fisheries was analyzed in 46 sites along the Amazon Basin through the proportion of biomass accounted for the most caught fish species from 15 scientific studies already published. We interviewed 203 fishers and 51 of them conducted participatory monitoring of their fish landings during one year, in 11 communities of the Lower Tapajós River. We analyzed the fishers’ LEK about possible changes in abundance and composition, size and spawning season of the most caught fish species and compared LEK with scientific literature and fish landings. We evaluated the level of conservation of fisheries resources in three different categories of Conservation Units (CUs) created at distinct periods. Most of the studied Amazonian fisheries were considered moderately selective. Eleven fish species (nine of them migratory) have received more fishing pressure in the Amazonian regions (Chapter 1). The composition of the most caught species changed over time in the Lower Tapajós River, showing a trend of decreasing abundance of larger species, such as, pirarucu (Arapaima gigas), tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) and tucunaré (Cichla spp.). The time of creation of CUs had a positive influence in the species conservation, while the proximity and access to the consumer market had a negative influence (Chapter 2). Fishers cited reproductive sizes of the species which agreed to sizes reported in the scientific literature. Fishers cited fish spawning seasons that agreed with fish landings, but were only partly in accordance with the literature (Chapter 3). The fishers’ LEK was efficient in the evaluation of the reproductive size and changes in the composition of the exploited species over time, identifying the fishing down process in the Lower Tapajós River. The fisheries management in the Amazon and in the Lower Tapajós River may be directed to the main fish species and must consider the knowledge of local populations in two ways: a) an integrated ecosystem approach directed to migratory species and vulnerability areas; and b) encouraging local systems of co-management, where fishers participate in the creation, design, implementation, enforcement and monitoring of fishing rules based on their knowledge about resources, and the management should focus on sedentary species and the protection of lakes and streams near the riverside communities.