Die rasanten Fortschritte bei der Entwicklung neuartiger 2D-Materialien haben in den letzten Jahren auch das Forschungsfeld der Spintronik stetig bereichert aufgrund der vielseitigen physikalischen Eigenschaften und der Flexibilität hinsichtlich der Realisierung von Heterostrukturen. Das erst kürzlich entdeckte metastabile und geschichtete Material alpha-FeGe2 trägt das Potenzial, in die Klasse der bekannten 2D Materialien aufgenommen zu werden. In dieser Dissertation werden die elektrischen und magnetischen Eigenschaften von alpha-FeGe2 diskutiert, basierend auf elektrischen Transportmessungen bei unterschiedlichen äußeren Magnetfeldern und Temperaturen. Zur Untersuchung von magnetoresistiven Effekten wurden Spinventilstrukturen mit alpha-FeGe2 als Trennmaterial zwischen zwei metallische Ferromagnete verwendet. Es wird gezeigt, dass alpha-FeGe2 eine dickenabhängige kritische Temperatur besitzt, die bei etwa 100 K liegt und mit einem magnetischen Phasenübergang von der antiferromagnetischen Phase für T > 100 K in die ferromagnetische Phase bei T < 100 K verknüpft ist. Dieser Phasenübergang wird von Berechnungen aus der Dichtefunktionaltheorie (DFT) gestützt. Es wird gezeigt, dass die magnetische Ordnung in der alpha-FeGe2-Trennschicht einen starken Einfluss auf die Spinventilsignale ausübt. Insbesondere spielt hierbei die Auswirkung auf die magnetische Interschichtkopllung zwischen den ferromagnetischen Elektroden aus Fe3Si oder Co2FeSi eine entscheidende Rolle. Die magnetische Kopplung an der Grenzfläche zwischen antiferromagnetischem alpha-FeGe2 und Fe3Si führt zu einer Anisotropie in den Spinventilsignalen hinsichtlich der Orientierung des externen Magnetfeldes. Diese Anisotropie wird durch ein komplexes Zusammenspiel zwischen der Magnetisierung der ferromagnetischen Elektroden und der magnetischen Vorzugsrichtung des antiferromagnetischen alpha-FeGe2, die durch den sog. Néelvektor beschrieben wird, diskutiert. / The rapid progress in the development of new 2D materials have also enriched spintronic research in recent years, thanks to their versatile physical properties and flexibility with regard to the design of heterostructures. The prominent examples graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) have the prospect to represent the basis of future spintronic applications, in particular due to their tunability and multifunctionality. The recently discovered metastable layered material alpha-FeGe2 is a potential candidate for being added to this class of materials. In this work, the electrical and magnetic properties of alpha-FeGe2 are studied, based on results from electrical transport measurements at different external magnetic fields and temperatures. For the investigation of magnetoresistive effects, spin valve devices containing alpha-FeGe2 as a spacer layer between two metallic ferromagnets have been utilized. It is shown that alpha-FeGe2 exhibits a thickens dependent critical temperature around 100 K at which it undergoes a magnetic phase transition from an antiferromagnetic state at T > 100 K to a ferromagnetic state at T < 100 K. This phase transition is also predicted by density functional theory (DFT) calculations and reflected in a disappearing spin valve signal at low temperatures. It is demonstrated that the magnetic phase of the alpha-FeGe2 spacer strongly influences the performance of spin valves, particularly via the impact on the magnetic interlayer coupling between the ferromagnetic electrodes made of Fe3Si or Co2FeSi. The magnetic coupling at the interface between antiferromagnetic alpha-FeGe2 and Fe3Si was found to induce anisotropies in the spin valve signal with regard to the external magnetic field orientation. This anisotropy is explained in terms of a complex interplay between the misalignment between the ferromagnetic electrodes and the magnetically preferred direction of the antiferromagentic alpha-FeGe2 described by the Néel vector.

No description available.

The aim of this thesis is a systematic study of physical properties of magnetic multilayered nanostructures. Namely it include multilayered spin valves NiFe/Cu/Co with magnetic anisotropy iduced by magnetic field applied during the deposition. Induced magnetic anisotropy influences exchange interactions between magnetic layers and so it gives the possibility to control magnetic properties of nanolayers. This is important for applications in MRAM, magnetoresistive read heads and spin-transfer-torque devices. Magnetooptic spectroscopy and Kerr effect hysteresis loop measurement were used as effective probe techniques. Secondly we examinated Ar3+ rf sputtering influence on multilayer interface quality level. We found out, that Ar3+ irradiation during deposition process has a possitive effect on interface quality.

Im Gebiet der Spin-Elektronik wird der Spin des Elektrons zusätzlich zu seiner Ladung für Bauelementkonzepte ausgenutzt. Hierbei ist die effiziente elektrische Erzeugung einer Spinakkumulation in einem halbleitenden Material von großer Bedeutung. Die Erzeugung der Spinakkumulation kann mithilfe eines ferromagnetischen Metall-Kontaktes erfolgen. Wird eine elektrische Spannung an die Grenzfläche zwischen dem ferromagnetischen Metall und dem Halbleiter so angelegt, dass spinpolarisierte Elektronen vom Metall in den Halbleiter fließen, spricht man von elektrischer Spininjektion. Bei einer Umkehrung der Spannung werden bevorzugt Elektronen der entgegengesetzten Spinorientierung aus dem halbleitenden Material entfernt. Dieser Prozess wird als Spinextraktion bezeichnet. In dieser Arbeit wird die elektrische Erzeugung einer Spinakkumulation in lateral strukturierten, epitaktischen Hybridstrukturen bestehend aus ferromagnetischen Metallkontakten auf n-dotiertem GaAs untersucht. Allgemein ist neben der Spinpolarisation im Ferromagneten auch die spinunabhängige elektrische Charakteristik eines Kontaktes von zentraler Bedeutung für die effiziente Spinerzeugung. Hier wird gezeigt, dass die gewöhnlichen Strom-Spannungs-Kennlinien die Spininjektionseigenschaften dominieren können. Außerdem wird ein neuartiges Bauelementkonzept vorgestellt und experimentell untersucht. Hierbei handelt es sich um ein lokales Spin-Ventil, welches Spinextraktion statt Spininjektion als Spinerzeugungsprozess verwendet. Im Gegensatz zum gewöhnlichen lokalen Spin-Ventil kann ein solches Extraktions-Spin-Ventil als Baustein eines erweiterten Bauelements angesehen werden, welches auf mehreren, aufeinanderfolgenden Extraktionsprozessen beruht. Die Eigenschaften des Extraktions-Spin-Ventils werden diskutiert und es wird gezeigt, wie seine Funktionalität beispielsweise für das Auslesen der Daten in magnetischen Speichern angewendet werden kann. / The efficient electrical generation of a spin accumulation inside a semiconductor (SC) utilizing the interface with a ferromagnetic metal (FM) is essential for the realization of many spintronic device concepts, in which the spin of the electron is exploited in addition to its charge for computational and memory purposes. At FM/n-type SC hybrid contacts, the application of a reverse bias leads to the injection of spin-polarized electrons into the SC. Alternatively, an applied forward bias can be used to generate a spin accumulation of opposite sign due to the extraction of electrons with a particular spin orientation. In this work, the electrical generation and detection of a spin accumulation is studied using epitaxial and laterally structured ferromagnetic metal/n-type GaAs hybrid systems in various measurement geometries. To achieve a high spin generation efficiency, the spinindependent electrical properties of the contact have to be considered in addition to the choice of the injector material with respect to its degree of spin polarization. Here, it is shown that the current-voltage characteristics can even constitute the dominating design parameter with respect to the spin injection properties. In addition, a novel device concept is presented and studied experimentally. This approach essentially relies on spin extraction as the spin generation process in a local spin valve geometry. In contrast to local spin valves based on spin injection, the presented extraction spin valve can be regarded as a building block of an extended device comprising multiple extraction events along the lateral spin transport channel. It is shown how such multiple extraction spin valves allow for an intriguing functionality, which can be used, for example, for the read-out of data in magnetic memory applications.

La découverte du graphène a récemment ouvert de nouvelles opportunités en termes de fonctionnalités et de performances pour les dispositifs de spintronique. Ce travail comporte deux études sur l’utilisation du graphène en spintronique.C’est en premier lieu pour ses propriétés de transport de spin que le graphène a suscité un fort intérêt en spintronique. En effet, de par sa forte mobilité et son faible couplage spin-orbite, il est rapidement apparu comme ayant un fort potentiel pour le transport de l’information de spin avec des longueurs de diffusion de spin attendues de l’ordre de la centaine de microns.Dans une première étude, je m'intéresse au graphène en tant que plateforme pour propager un courant polarisé en spin. Je décris tout d'abord les principales techniques de mesure de vannes de spin latérales, en insistant sur l'importance de la barrière tunnel pour se placer dans les conditions appropriées à la mesure des propriétés intrinsèques au graphène. Je présente ensuite les résultats que j’ai obtenus. Je commence par ceux sur graphène épitaxié sur SiC dans lequel nous avons réussi à injecter, propager et détecter un courant polarisé en spin créé soit grâce à un injecteur ferromagnétique (Co/Al2O3), soit par effet Hall de spin (à partir du platine). Je présente ensuite les résultats obtenus sur un autre type de graphène grande surface, le graphène CVD monocouche, pour lequel j'ai pu expérimenter une nouvelle barrière tunnel: le nitrure de bore hexagonal.Par-delà ses propriétés de transport latéral, le graphène pourrait avoir un autre intérêt pour la spintronique, par exemple dans le cadre de la passivation des couches ferromagnétiques dans les jonctions tunnel magnétiques.Dans une seconde étude, je m'intéresse au graphène comme membrane pour protéger une électrode ferromagnétique de l'oxydation tout en autorisant l’extraction d’un courant polarisé en spin. Aujourd’hui, dû à la propension naturelle des matériaux ferromagnétiques à s’oxyder, les procédés humides/oxydants sont souvent exclus de la fabrication de dispositifs de spintronique. Après avoir introduit les enjeux, je présente mes résultats expérimentaux. Je montre tout d'abord qu’une monocouche de graphène suffit à empêcher l'oxydation d'une électrode de nickel et qu’un filtrage de spin intéressant apparaît à l'interface Ni/Graphène. Je valide ensuite l'ensemble de ce potentiel en montrant qu'on peut utiliser une technique oxydative de dépôt tel que l'Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) sans endommager les propriétés de l'électrode ferromagnétique Ni+Graphène. Le procédé d’ALD, bien qu'utilisé partout en électronique (cette technique sert aujourd’hui à réaliser les grilles des transistors d’Intel), était jusqu’ici proscrit car il met en jeu des molécules telles que l'ozone ou l'eau et est donc par nature oxydant. Enfin, je montre que le filtrage de spin à l’interface Ni/Graphène aboutit alors à une inversion quasi-totale de la polarisation en spin du Ni.Ce travail de thèse montre que le graphène peut être utilisé comme canal de transport d’un courant polarisé en spin, comme membrane protectrice imperméable à l’oxydation ou encore comme filtre à spin. L’ensemble de ces travaux illustre la richesse des applications du graphène pour la spintronique. / Graphene discovery has opened new opportunities in terms of functionality and performance for spintronics devices. This work presents two examples of what graphene can bring to the spintronics field.Graphene first aroused interest amongst the community because of its excellent properties for transporting spin information. Indeed, thanks to its high reported mobilities and its weak spin-orbit coupling, graphene quickly became a high-potential candidate to transport spin information with expected spin diffusion length in the hundreds of microns range.In the first part of this thesis, I study graphene as a platform to propagate a spin polarized current. I first describe the main techniques to measure lateral spin valves, emphasizing the importance of the tunnel barrier being under the right conditions to permit measurement of the intrinsic properties of graphene. I then present my results. I begin with the results obtained on epitaxial graphene on SiC, in which I was able to inject, propagate and detect a spin current created either by a ferromagnetic injector (Co/Al2O3), or through the spin Hall effect (from Pt). Then, I present the results obtained on another large-area graphene, a single layer of graphene grown by CVD on which I tested a new unnel barrier : hexagonal boron-nitrideBeyond its potential as a platform to transport spin information, other opportunities for graphene in spintronics exist, for example its use in the passivation of ferromagnetic layers in magnetic tunnel junctions.In the second part of this thesis, I am interested in graphene’s potential as a membrane that could protect ferromagnets from oxidation while simultaneously allowing the extraction of a spin current. Indeed, because of the natural propensity of the ferromagnetic material to be oxidized, humid and oxidative processes are excluded from the fabrication of spintronic devices. After introducing the background motivation, I present my experimental results. I first show that a single layer of grapheneis enough to prevent the oxidation of a Ni electrode and that an interesting spin filtering effect happens at the interface Ni/Graphene. I then confirm this by showing that it is possible to use an oxidative technique like Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) without damaging the properties of the ferromagnetic electrode Ni+Graphene. ALD is widely used in electronics (Intel uses it to make its transistor gates) but was up to now prohibited in spintronics because it involves oxidative molecules like water or ozone. Finally, I show that the spin-filtering effect at the interface Ni/Graphene leads to a quasi-total reversal of the spin polarisation of the Ni.This thesis shows that graphene can be used as a channel to transport spin information, as a protective membrane to protect against oxidation, or as a spin filter. All this work illustrates the richness of graphene applications for spintronics.

The present thesis is about the investigation of ferromagnetic thin film systems with respect to exchange coupling, magnetization reversal behavior and effects appearing in magnetic heterostructures, namely the exchange bias and the giant magnetoresistance effect. For this purpose, DC magnetron sputtered thin films and multilayers with perpendicular magnetic anisotropy were prepared on single crystalline and rigid as well as flexible amorphous substrates. The first part concentrates on magnetic data storage applications based on the combination of the concept of bit patterned media and three dimensional magnetic memory, consisting of at least two exchange decoupled ferromagnetic storage layers. Here, [Co/Pt] multilayers, revealing different magnetic anisotropies, have been applied as storage layers and as spacer material Pt and Ru was employed. By the characterization of the magnetization reversal behavior the exchange coupling in dependence of the spacer layer thickness was studied. Furthermore, with regard to the concept of bit patterned media, the layers were also grown on self-assembled silica particles, leading to an exchange decoupled single-domain magnetic dot array, which was studied by magnetic force microscope imaging and angular dependent magneto-optic Kerr effect magnetometry to evaluate the reversal mechanism and its dependence on the array dimensions, mainly the diameter of the silica particles and layer thicknesses. To complete the study, micromagnetic simulations were performed to access smaller dimensions and to investigate the dependence of intralayer as well as interlayer coupling on the magnetization reversal of the dot array with multiple storage layers. The second part focuses on the investigation of the giant magnetoresistance effect in systems with perpendicular magnetic anisotropy, where L10 -chemically ordered FePt alloys and [Co/Pt] as well as [Co/Pd] multilayers were utilized. In case of FePt, where high temperatures during the deposition are necessary to induce the chemical ordering, diffusion and alloying of the spacer material often prevent a sufficient exchange decoupling of the ferromagnetic layers. However, with Ru as spacer material a giant magnetoresistance effect could be achieved. Large improvements of the magnetoresistive behavior of such trilayer structures are presented for [Co/Pt] and [Co/Pd] multilayers, which can be deposited at room temperature not limiting the choice of spacer as well as substrate material. Furthermore, in systems consisting of one ferromagnet with perpendicular magnetic anisotropy and one ferromagnet with in-plane magnetic easy axis, a linear and almost hysteresis-free field dependence of the electrical resistance was observed and the behavior for various thickness series has been intensively studied. Finally, the corrosion resistance in dependence of the capping layer material as well as the magnetoresistance of a strained flexible pseudo-spin-valve structure is presented. In addition, in chapter 2.5.2 an experimental study of an improved crystal growth of FePt at comparable low temperatures by molecular beam epitaxy and further promoted by a surfactant mediated growth using Sb is shown. Auger electron spectroscopy as well as Rutherford backscattering spectrometry were carried out to confirm the surface segregation of Sb and magnetic characterization revealed an increase of magnetic anisotropy in comparison to reference layers without Sb. / Die vorliegende Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit der Untersuchung ferromagnetischer Dünnschichtsysteme im Hinblick auf die Austauchkopplung, das Ummagnetisierungsverhalten und Effekte wie z.B. den Exchange Bias Effekt oder den Riesenmagnetwiderstandseffekt (GMR), welche in derartigen Heterostrukturen auftreten können. Die Probenpräparation erfolgte mittels DC Magnetronsputtern, wobei auf einkristallinen aber auch flexiblen sowie starren amorphen Substraten abgeschieden wurde. Im ersten Teil der Arbeit werden Untersuchungen mit dem Hintergrund einer Anwendung als magnetischer Datenträger vorgestellt. Konkret werden hier die Konzepte Bit Patterned Media (BPM) und 3D Speicher miteinander kombiniert. Letzteres Konzept basiert auf der Verwendung wenigstens zweier austauschentkoppelter ferromagnetischer Schichten, für welche [Co/Pt] Multilagen mit unterschiedlicher magnetischer Anisotropie verwendet wurden. Als Zwischenschichtmaterial diente Pt und Ru. Durch die Charakterisierung des Ummagnetisierungsverhaltens wurde die Austauschkopplung in Abhängigkeit der Zwischenschichtdicke untersucht. Darüber hinaus wurden jene Schichtstapel zur Realisierung des BPM-Konzeptes auf selbstangeordnete SiO2 Partikel mit unterschiedlichen Durchmessern aufgebracht, durch welche sich lateral austauschentkoppelte, eindomänige magnetische Nanostrukturen erzeugen lassen. Zur Untersuchung des Ummagnetisierungsverhaltens und der jeweiligen Größenabhängigkeiten (maßgeblich Durchmesser und Schichtdicke) wurden diese mittels Magnetkraftmikroskopie sowie winkelabhängiger magnetooptischer Kerr Effekt Magnetometrie untersucht. Zur weiteren Vertiefung des Verständnisses noch kleinerer Strukturgrößen erfolgten mikromagnetische Simulationen, bei denen die magnetischen Wechselwirkungen lateral (benachbarte 3D Elemente) als auch vertikal (Wechselwirkungen ferromagnetischer Schichten innerhalb eines 3D Elementes) im Interesse standen, sowie deren Auswirkungen auf das Ummagnetisierungsverhalten des gesamten Feldes. Der Fokus des zweiten Teils liegt auf der Untersuchung des Riesenmagnetwiderstandseffektes in Systemen mit senkrechter Sensitivität. Dafür sind ferromagnetische Schichten mit senkrechter magnetischer Anisotropie nötig, wobei hier die chemisch geordnete L10-Phase der FePt Legierung und [Co/Pt] sowie [Co/Pd] Multilagen Anwendung fanden. Für eine chemische Ordnung der FePt Legierung sind hohe Temperaturen während der Schichtabscheidung notwendig, welche eine hinreichende Austauschentkopplung beider ferromagnetischer Schichten meist nicht gewährleisten. Grund dafür sind einsetzende Diffusionsprozesse als auch Legierungsbildungen mit dem Zwischenschichtmaterial. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte der GMR Effekt daher ausschließlich mit einer Ru Zwischenschicht in FePt basierten Trilagensystemen nachgewiesen und charakterisiert werden. Enorme Verbesserungen der magnetoresistiven Eigenschaften werden im Anschluss für [Co/Pt] und vor allem [Co/Pd] Multilagen vorgestellt. Diese Schichtsysteme mit senkrechter magnetischer Anisotropie können bei Raumtemperatur präpariert werden und stellen daher keine weiteren Anforderungen an das Zwischenschichtmaterial sowie die verwendeten Substrate. Hier wurden neben Systemen mit ausschließlich senkrechter magnetischer Anisotropie auch Systeme mit gekreuzten magnetischen Anisotropien intensiv untersucht, da diese durch einen linearen und weitgehend hysteresefreien R(H) Verlauf imHinblick auf Sensoranwendungen enorme Vorteile bieten. Letztendlich wurde die Korrosionsbeständigkeit in Abhängigkeit des Deckschichtmaterials als auch die mechanische Belastbarkeit von auf flexiblen Substraten abgeschiedenen GMR-Schichtstapeln untersucht. Zusätzlich wird in Kapitel 2.5.2 eine experimentelle Studie zum Surfactant-gesteuerten Wachstum der FePt Legierung mittels Molekularstrahlepitaxie vorgestellt. Als Surfactant dient Sb, wodurch die Kristallinität bei geringer Depositionstemperatur deutlich verbessert werden konnte. Die Oberflächensegregation von Sb wurde mittels Auger Elektronenspektroskopie und Rutherford Rückstreuspektrometrie verifiziert und die Charakterisierung magnetischer Eigenschaften belegt einen Anstieg der magnetischen Anisotropieenergie im Vergleich zu Referenzproben ohne Sb.

Spintronics (spin based electronics) is a relatively new topic of research which is important both from the fundamental and technological point of view. In conventional electronics charge of the electron is manipulated and controlled to realize electronic devices. Spintronics uses charge as well as the spin degree of freedom of electrons, which is completely ignored in the charge based devices. This new device concept brings in a whole new set of device possibilities with potential advantages like higher speed, greater efficiency, non-volatility, reduced power consumption etc. The first realization of the spintronic device happened in 1989, owing to the discovery of the Giant Magneto-resistive (GMR) structure showing a large resistance change by the application of an external magnetic field. Nobel Prize in Physics is awarded for this discovery in 2007. In less than ten years, such devices moved from the lab to commercial devices, as read head sensors in hard disc drives. This new sensor led to an unprecedented yearly growth in the area l density of bits in a magnetic disc drive. Since 2005, another spintronic device known as Magnetic Tunnel Junction (MTJ) which shows a better performance replaced the existing GMR structures in the read heads. Another device which can potentially replace Si based Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) is Magneto-resistive Random Access Memory (MRAM). Being magnetic it is non-volatile, which means not only it retains its memory with the power turned off but also there is no constant power required for frequent refreshing. This can save a lot of power(~ 10-15 Watts in a DRAM), which is quite significant amount for any portable device which runs under battery. Prototype of a commercial MRAM is also made during 2004-2005 by Infineon and Freescale Semiconductors. Recent development has shown switching of magnetic moment by spin-polarised currents (known as spin transfer torque), electric fields, and photonic fields. Instead of Oersted field switching in the conventional MRAM devices, spin torque effect can also be used to switch a magnetic element more efficiently. Recently Spin-Torque MRAM has gained lot of interest due to it’s less power consumption during the writing process. A continuous research effort is going on in realizing other proposed spintronic devices, such as Spin Torque Oscillator, Spin Field Effect Transistor , Race Track Memory etc. which are yet to get realized or yet to make their entry in the commercial devices. Spintronics can be divided in to two broad subfields viz.(1) Semiconductor Spintronics and (2) Metallic Spintronics. Most of the devices belong to the second class whereas the former one is rich in fundamental science and not yet cleared its path towards the world of application. Any spintronic device requires ferromagnetic material which is generally the source of spin polarized electrons. For semiconductor spintronic devices, the main obstacle is the non-existence of the ferromagnetic semiconductor above room temperature (RT). So the development in this direction is very much dependent on the material science research and discovery of novel material systems. Almost a decade back, Dilute Magnetic Semiconductors (DMS) are proposed to behaving RT ferromagnetism. As a result an intense theoretical and experimental research is being carried out since then on these materials. Still a general consensus is lacking both in terms of theory as well as experiment. There are many methodologies and thin film deposition protocols have been followed by different research groups to realize spintronic device concepts. The deposition techniques such as magnetron sputtering, molecular beam epitaxy have been found very efficient for growing metallic spintronic devices. For semiconductor spintronics especially in the area of Dilute Magnetic Semiconductors (DMS) pulsed laser ablation is also considered to be a viable technique. Even though pulsed laser ablation is a very powerful technique to prepare stoichiometric multi-component oxide films, it’s viability for the growth of metallic films and multilayer is considered to be limited. In this regard, we have used pulsed laser ablation to prepare pure and Co doped ZnO films, to examine the magnetic and magneto-transport behavior of these oxides. In addition extensive work has been carried out to optimize and reproducibly prepare metallic multilayer by Pulsed Laser Deposition to realize Spin Valve (SV) effect, which proves the viability of this technique for making metallic multilayer. This thesis deals with the study of Pulsed Laser Deposition(PLD) deposited DMSs and metallic SVs. The thesis is organized into seven chapters as described below: • Chapter:1 This chapter gives an introduction to Spintronics and the different device structures. It is followed by a brief description of the motivation of the present work. Since magnetism is at the heart of the spintronics, next we attempt to introduce some of the basic concepts in magnetism, which are related to the topics discussed in the following chapters. We discuss about various exchange interactions responsible for the long range ferromagnetic ordering below Curie temperature in different compounds. Other magnetic properties are also discussed. Then another important phenomenon called magnetic anisotropy is brought in. We discuss the origin of different types of anisotropy in materials. These anisotropies are also responsible for magnetic domain formation. Then a description of the different types of domain walls are introduced. Unlike conventional electronics, spintronics deals with spin polarized current. A short description of spin polarization from the band picture and concept of half-metal is introduced. The next part (Section-I) of this chapter gives an overview of the challenges in semiconductor spintronics. The spin injection efficiency from a ferromagnetic metal to a semiconductor is found to be poor. This problem is attributed to the conductivity mismatch at the interface. DMS materials can be potential candidates in order to solve this problem. Ferromagnetism in these proposed materials cannot be explained in terms of the standard exchange mechanisms. A model was first proposed for the hole doped system based on Zener model. A more apt model for the n-doped high dielectric materials is then proposed based on Bound Magnetic Polarons (BMP). These models for the unusual ferromagnetism are briefly discussed. Although ferromagnetism is observed by different groups, often questions are raised about the intrinsic origin of this behavior and the topic is still under debate. In this study we have tried to correlate the magnetic property with the transport property as the transport properties are generally not affected much by the presence of external impurities and probes the intrinsic property of the material. Transport and the magneto-transport in disordered materials in general are discussed. A specific model proposed for degenerate semiconductors, which is used for fitting our experimental data is explained. As the ferromagnetism in these materials are generally found to be related to the defects, different types of possible defects are described. Section-II deals with the metallic SV devices. In the history of spintronics, this is one of the most basic and most studied structures, but still having a lot of interest both fundamentally and technologically. A brief history of this discovery and a chronological progress in the device structure is discussed. Our work focuses on the metallic spin valve (SV) structures. Different types of SVs and their properties are explained. In a SV structure one of the ferromagnets (FM) is pinned using an adjuscent antiferromagnetic layer by an effect called exchange bias. A brief description of exchange bias and the effects of different parameters is given. This is followed by a discussion about the theory of GMR which deals with the spin dependent scattering at the bulk and at the interfaces, their relative contributions, effect of the band matching etc. A simple resistor model is used to explain the qualitative behavior of these SVs. The chapter is concluded with a brief summery and applications. • Chapter:2 This chapter provides a brief description of some of the experimental apparatus that are used to perform various experiments. The chapter is organized according to the general functionality of the techniques. This includes different thin film deposition techniques which are used depending on the requirements and also for comparing the properties of the samples, grown by different techniques. Structural, spectroscopic, magnetic and different microscopy techniques which are extensively used throughout, are discussed and their working principles are explained. This work also involves nano/microstructuring of devices. Mainly two structuring techniques are used viz. e-beam lithography and optical lithography by laser writer. In this section we will be discussing about these two techniques and other associated techniques like lift-off, etching etc. Effect of different parameters on the device structures are highlighted. • Chapter:3 Chapter-3 deals with the synthesis and characterization of the pure and 5% Co doped ZnO bulk samples. First a brief introduction about the ZnO crystal structure, band structure and other properties are given followed by the synthesis technique followed in our study. Synthesis is done by low temeperature in organic co-precipitation method. This liquid phase synthesis gives better homogeniety. As-grown sample is also sintered at a higher temperature. Structural study confirms the proper synthesis of the intended compound. Spectroscopic as well as magnetic study of the bulk doped sample indicates the presence of Co nano clusters in the low temperature synthesized sample, whereas after sintering indication of Co2+ is observed which reflects in the magnetic property as well. These samples are used as target material for laser ablation. • Chapter:4 Chapter-4 presents the results of the pure and Co doped ZnO thin film samples. Thin films are grown by PLD method on r-plane Sapphire substrates. Details of the growth technique and the deposition parameters are explained. Our result shows that 5% Co doped ZnO thin film is ferromagnetic in nature as expected in a DMS material, although the film is grown using a paramagnetic target. We also report that pure ZnO grown in an oxygen deficient condition giving ferromagnetic behavior. Not only that, the obtained saturation moment is much higher compared to the Co doped sample. We have demonstrated that the FM can be tuned by tuning the oxygen content and FM disappears when the film is annealed in an oxygen environment .But for the Co doped sample magnetic property could not be tuned much as Co doping stabilizes the surface states. To exclude the possibilities of the extrinsic origin we have done a detailed magneto-transport study for both doped and undoped films. For ZnO, we have shown a one to one correlation of the magnetic and magneto-transport data which further supports the fact that the obtained magnetic behavior is intrinsic. Fitting of the magnetorsistance (MR) data for the pure and Co doped ZnO samples is done using a semi-empirical formula, consisting of both positive and negative MR terms originally proposed for degenerate semiconductors .Excellent agreement of the experimental data is found with the formula. For pure ZnO sample we have extracted the mobility, carrier concentration etc .by Hall measurement. The fabrication steps of Hall bar sample which involves optical lithography and ion beam etching are discussed. 3D e-e interaction induced transport mechanism is found to be dominant in case of oxygen deficient pure ZnO. • Chapter:5 Chapter-5 demonstrates the tuning of band gap of ZnO by alloying with MgO. By changing the ZnO:MgO ratio in PLD grown films, we could tune the band gap over a wide range. Composition alanalysis is done by Rutherford Back-Scattering. Structural and spectroscopic studies are carried out, which shows tuning of band gap upon alloying with MgO. We could tune ZnO band gap from 3.3eV to 3.92eV by30% MgO alloying, while retaining the Wurtzite crystal structure. • Chapter:6 Chapter-6 demonstrates the metallic Pseudo Spin Valve (PSV) structures grown by sputtering and by PLD. Main focus of this chapter is to show that, PLD can be aviable technique for making metallic PSV and Spin Valve (SV) structures. This is almost an unexplored technique for growing metallic thin film SVs, as it is evident in the literature. NiFe and Co are used as the soft and hard FM layers respectively, Au and Cu are used as the spacer layer. FeMn is used for pinning the Co layer in case of the SV structures. The first section describes the properties of these materials and then substrate preparation, deposition parameters etc. are explained in details. Properties of sputter deposited PSV structures are also described. Thickness variation of different layers, double PSV structure and angular variation of the MR properties are presented. Generally two measurement geometries are followed for the SV measurements viz.(1) Current In Plane (CIP) and (2) Current Perpendicular to Plane(CPP). We have carried out MR studies in both the measurement geometries. Measurement in CPP geometry is much more involved than CIP and need structuring with multiple lithography steps. CPP measurement geometry scheme and the process steps are discussed. For this measurement a special ac bridge technique is followed which is also discussed. In the next part we have demonstrated PSV and SV structures, grown, using PLD in an Ultra High Vacuum (UHV) system. Not only that, we have obtained a CIPMR as high as 3.3%. PLD is generally thought to be a technique for oxide deposition and metallic multilayers are not deposited due to particulate formation, high enegy of the adatom species which can lead to inter-mixing at the interface etc. But in this study we have shown that by properly tuning the deposition parameters, it is possible to grow SVs using PLD. We have found the roughness of the PLD grown films are much lower compared to the sputtered films. For top SV structures we have obtained exchange bias even in the absence of applied field during deposition. This effect is observed by performing magnetic and magneto-resistance measurements. Effect of different layer thicknesses, field annealing etc. are discussed. Two different spacer layers are used and their properties are compared. We have found that the interface engineered structures are giving highest MR among the different samples. Then a conclusion of our study is presented followed by a discussion on the difficulties and challenges faced for optimizing the PLD grown SVs. • Chapter:7 Finally, in Chapter-7, various results are summarized and a broad outlook is given. Perspectives for the continuation of the present work is also given.

The present thesis is about the investigation of ferromagnetic thin film systems with respect to exchange coupling, magnetization reversal behavior and effects appearing in magnetic heterostructures, namely the exchange bias and the giant magnetoresistance effect. For this purpose, DC magnetron sputtered thin films and multilayers with perpendicular magnetic anisotropy were prepared on single crystalline and rigid as well as flexible amorphous substrates. The first part concentrates on magnetic data storage applications based on the combination of the concept of bit patterned media and three dimensional magnetic memory, consisting of at least two exchange decoupled ferromagnetic storage layers. Here, [Co/Pt] multilayers, revealing different magnetic anisotropies, have been applied as storage layers and as spacer material Pt and Ru was employed. By the characterization of the magnetization reversal behavior the exchange coupling in dependence of the spacer layer thickness was studied. Furthermore, with regard to the concept of bit patterned media, the layers were also grown on self-assembled silica particles, leading to an exchange decoupled single-domain magnetic dot array, which was studied by magnetic force microscope imaging and angular dependent magneto-optic Kerr effect magnetometry to evaluate the reversal mechanism and its dependence on the array dimensions, mainly the diameter of the silica particles and layer thicknesses. To complete the study, micromagnetic simulations were performed to access smaller dimensions and to investigate the dependence of intralayer as well as interlayer coupling on the magnetization reversal of the dot array with multiple storage layers. The second part focuses on the investigation of the giant magnetoresistance effect in systems with perpendicular magnetic anisotropy, where L10 -chemically ordered FePt alloys and [Co/Pt] as well as [Co/Pd] multilayers were utilized. In case of FePt, where high temperatures during the deposition are necessary to induce the chemical ordering, diffusion and alloying of the spacer material often prevent a sufficient exchange decoupling of the ferromagnetic layers. However, with Ru as spacer material a giant magnetoresistance effect could be achieved. Large improvements of the magnetoresistive behavior of such trilayer structures are presented for [Co/Pt] and [Co/Pd] multilayers, which can be deposited at room temperature not limiting the choice of spacer as well as substrate material. Furthermore, in systems consisting of one ferromagnet with perpendicular magnetic anisotropy and one ferromagnet with in-plane magnetic easy axis, a linear and almost hysteresis-free field dependence of the electrical resistance was observed and the behavior for various thickness series has been intensively studied. Finally, the corrosion resistance in dependence of the capping layer material as well as the magnetoresistance of a strained flexible pseudo-spin-valve structure is presented. In addition, in chapter 2.5.2 an experimental study of an improved crystal growth of FePt at comparable low temperatures by molecular beam epitaxy and further promoted by a surfactant mediated growth using Sb is shown. Auger electron spectroscopy as well as Rutherford backscattering spectrometry were carried out to confirm the surface segregation of Sb and magnetic characterization revealed an increase of magnetic anisotropy in comparison to reference layers without Sb. / Die vorliegende Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit der Untersuchung ferromagnetischer Dünnschichtsysteme im Hinblick auf die Austauchkopplung, das Ummagnetisierungsverhalten und Effekte wie z.B. den Exchange Bias Effekt oder den Riesenmagnetwiderstandseffekt (GMR), welche in derartigen Heterostrukturen auftreten können. Die Probenpräparation erfolgte mittels DC Magnetronsputtern, wobei auf einkristallinen aber auch flexiblen sowie starren amorphen Substraten abgeschieden wurde. Im ersten Teil der Arbeit werden Untersuchungen mit dem Hintergrund einer Anwendung als magnetischer Datenträger vorgestellt. Konkret werden hier die Konzepte Bit Patterned Media (BPM) und 3D Speicher miteinander kombiniert. Letzteres Konzept basiert auf der Verwendung wenigstens zweier austauschentkoppelter ferromagnetischer Schichten, für welche [Co/Pt] Multilagen mit unterschiedlicher magnetischer Anisotropie verwendet wurden. Als Zwischenschichtmaterial diente Pt und Ru. Durch die Charakterisierung des Ummagnetisierungsverhaltens wurde die Austauschkopplung in Abhängigkeit der Zwischenschichtdicke untersucht. Darüber hinaus wurden jene Schichtstapel zur Realisierung des BPM-Konzeptes auf selbstangeordnete SiO2 Partikel mit unterschiedlichen Durchmessern aufgebracht, durch welche sich lateral austauschentkoppelte, eindomänige magnetische Nanostrukturen erzeugen lassen. Zur Untersuchung des Ummagnetisierungsverhaltens und der jeweiligen Größenabhängigkeiten (maßgeblich Durchmesser und Schichtdicke) wurden diese mittels Magnetkraftmikroskopie sowie winkelabhängiger magnetooptischer Kerr Effekt Magnetometrie untersucht. Zur weiteren Vertiefung des Verständnisses noch kleinerer Strukturgrößen erfolgten mikromagnetische Simulationen, bei denen die magnetischen Wechselwirkungen lateral (benachbarte 3D Elemente) als auch vertikal (Wechselwirkungen ferromagnetischer Schichten innerhalb eines 3D Elementes) im Interesse standen, sowie deren Auswirkungen auf das Ummagnetisierungsverhalten des gesamten Feldes. Der Fokus des zweiten Teils liegt auf der Untersuchung des Riesenmagnetwiderstandseffektes in Systemen mit senkrechter Sensitivität. Dafür sind ferromagnetische Schichten mit senkrechter magnetischer Anisotropie nötig, wobei hier die chemisch geordnete L10-Phase der FePt Legierung und [Co/Pt] sowie [Co/Pd] Multilagen Anwendung fanden. Für eine chemische Ordnung der FePt Legierung sind hohe Temperaturen während der Schichtabscheidung notwendig, welche eine hinreichende Austauschentkopplung beider ferromagnetischer Schichten meist nicht gewährleisten. Grund dafür sind einsetzende Diffusionsprozesse als auch Legierungsbildungen mit dem Zwischenschichtmaterial. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte der GMR Effekt daher ausschließlich mit einer Ru Zwischenschicht in FePt basierten Trilagensystemen nachgewiesen und charakterisiert werden. Enorme Verbesserungen der magnetoresistiven Eigenschaften werden im Anschluss für [Co/Pt] und vor allem [Co/Pd] Multilagen vorgestellt. Diese Schichtsysteme mit senkrechter magnetischer Anisotropie können bei Raumtemperatur präpariert werden und stellen daher keine weiteren Anforderungen an das Zwischenschichtmaterial sowie die verwendeten Substrate. Hier wurden neben Systemen mit ausschließlich senkrechter magnetischer Anisotropie auch Systeme mit gekreuzten magnetischen Anisotropien intensiv untersucht, da diese durch einen linearen und weitgehend hysteresefreien R(H) Verlauf imHinblick auf Sensoranwendungen enorme Vorteile bieten. Letztendlich wurde die Korrosionsbeständigkeit in Abhängigkeit des Deckschichtmaterials als auch die mechanische Belastbarkeit von auf flexiblen Substraten abgeschiedenen GMR-Schichtstapeln untersucht. Zusätzlich wird in Kapitel 2.5.2 eine experimentelle Studie zum Surfactant-gesteuerten Wachstum der FePt Legierung mittels Molekularstrahlepitaxie vorgestellt. Als Surfactant dient Sb, wodurch die Kristallinität bei geringer Depositionstemperatur deutlich verbessert werden konnte. Die Oberflächensegregation von Sb wurde mittels Auger Elektronenspektroskopie und Rutherford Rückstreuspektrometrie verifiziert und die Charakterisierung magnetischer Eigenschaften belegt einen Anstieg der magnetischen Anisotropieenergie im Vergleich zu Referenzproben ohne Sb.

Cette thèse porte sur l’étude des courants de spin et de l’effet Hall de spin dans des nanostructureslatérales. Des vannes de spin latérales Py/Al, Py/Cu et Py/Au, ont été fabriquées parlithographie électronique, puis optimisées et caractérisées par des mesures de magnéto-transport.Des mesures non locales, de GMR, et d’effet Hanle ont ainsi été enregistrées à 300K et 77K. De l’optimisation des vannes de spin latérales a découlé l’observation de fortes amplitudes designal de spin. De plus, les effets du confinement latéral et vertical de l‘accumulation de spin,par utilisation d’un canal non-magnétique confiné ou de barrières tunnel AlOx, ont été mis enévidence expérimentalement et décrits théoriquement. Des simulations par éléments finis et desanalyses basées sur les modèles de diffusion 1D ont été développées, permettant l’extraction de lapolarisation effective Peff et de la longueur de diffusion de spin lNsf des données expérimentales.Enfin, l’effet Hall de spin dans des matériaux à fort angles de Hall (Pt, aliage d’Au) a étéétudié dans des hétérostructures latérales et par pompage de spin à la résonance ferromagnétique. / This PhD thesis focus on the study of spin currents and of the spin Hall effect in lateralnano-structures. Lateral spin-valves based on Py/Al, Py/Cu and Py/Au, fabricated by meansof electron-beam lithography, have been optimized and characterized using magneto-resistancemeasurements. Non-local, GMR and Hanle effect measurements have been recorded at 300K and77K. The optimization of these lateral spin-valves allowed the observation of high spin signalamplitudes. Lateral and vertical confinement effects on the spin accumulation, by using confinednon-magnetic channel and AlOx tunnel barriers, were evidenced experimentally and describedtheoretically. Finite Elements Method simulations and analyses based on a 1D diffusion modelhave been developed, allowing the extraction from our experimental data of the effective spinpolarization Peff and of the spin diffusion length lNsf .Finally, the spin Hall effect of materials with high spin Hall angles (Pt, Au alloys) has beenstudied using both hybrid lateral nano-structures and spin pumping ferro-magnetic resonance.