不同於以往採用數學測驗的性別刻板印象威脅研究，本研究採用男性不擅長的剪紙作業為實驗材料，並以男性為烙印團體成員。本研究同時將過去研究未探討的團體作業情境納入實驗考量，以探討在團體作業情境中，同一「刻板印象」可使參與者擔心自己表現不佳而降低表現（刻板印象威脅），但又可使參與者預期伙伴表現不佳而傾向付出更多心力（社會補償），則參與者是否因為付出更多心力而提升了原本受到刻板印象威脅影響所降低的表現。 本研究為2(刻板印象威脅：有 vs. 無)× 2（伙伴性別：男 vs. 女）× 2（伙伴表現：好 vs. 差）的受試者間設計。其中，在刻板印象威脅部分，採用直接告知「女性比男性擅長剪紙作業」的方式引發刻板印象威脅效果。在社會補償方面，分別以「伙伴男性」與「伙伴表現差」二種訊息來引發參與者社會補償。本研究之主要依變項為完成剪紙作業之作業速度與作業品質。本研究有效樣本為121位男性大學生。 研究結果發現，「伙伴表現」與「伙伴性別」二變項之效果皆未達顯著，顯示伙伴訊息未能引發社會補償效果；而針對社會補償是否能減除刻板印象威脅效果之考驗，亦未達顯著水準，因此以社會補償作為減除刻板印象威脅效果的可能性在本研究中未獲支持。然而，卻發現「伙伴表現」與「伙伴性別」的交互作用顯著，即當操弄的伙伴訊息與刻板印象「不一致」時，參與者表現比「一致」時更好，顯示「伙伴訊息」可能另有影響。本文將針對上述結果進行探討，並對研究限制與對未來研究之建議加以說明。 / Different from previous gender stereotype threat studies that use mathematics tests as tools, this study uses the manual task—paper cutting generally not familiar to males as experimental material and take them as stigmatized group numbers. This research take into consideration the group task (cooperation situation) to investigate whether participants’ additional efforts will compensate the degraded performance resulting from gender stereotype threat, in the situation that a stereotype can cause people to lower their effort as a result of their worry about their perceived poor performance (stereotype threat) and can also motivate them to make more effort thanks to their prediction of their partner’s poor performance (social compensation). The participants were randomly assigned to one of the eight conditions in a factorial design: 2 (stereotype threat: salience, not salience) × 2（partner’s gender: male, female）× 2（partner’s performance: good, bad）. To evoke stereotype threat effect, the experimenters directly told the participants that “Females are better than males in the manual task.” To evoke social compensation effect, researchers arranged “males” and “poor performance” information. Valid samples were 121 male undergraduates, and their reaction time and quality of the manual task were measured. Not as expected, the results do not support hypotheses. However, it has found out that “the interaction of partner’s gender and partner’s performance” was significant. That is, the participant whose partner’s information is consistent with stereotype performs better than the participant whose partner’s information was inconsistent with stereotype. The result suggests that partner’s information may have unexpected influence on participants’ performance. This article also discusses the results, explains the limitations and offers suggestions for future research.

This study explored teachers' perceptions of intelligence of 11th-grade Black male students and how students themselves perceived their own intelligence in light of Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence. Qualitative research methods were used to gain novel understanding of the students' and teachers' feelings, and perceptions as outlined in the research questions. Two versions of ecological systems theory provided the underpinnings for the framework of this study: 1) Brönfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory, and 2) Spencer's PVEST (Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory) model, which is an adaptation of the ecology model to Black students in the United States. In a large urban school district in the Southeast section of the United States, twenty-six students completed an online survey of Gardner's Multiple Intelligences. Seven Black male students were selected and interviewed along with ten of their teachers. The study found that despite the negative stereotypes toward Black males by society, the Black male students in this study interpreted intelligence to be multifaceted and perceived themselves as intelligent Black males. The teachers of the Black male students perceived them as intelligent and also interpreted intelligence to be multifaceted. The Black male students were resilient in debunking the idea that Black males were not considered intelligent in a society where negative Black male stereotypes abound.

刻板印象威脅效果是指當個人在面臨與其能力有關的負向刻板印象時，會有測驗表現不佳的現象，由於國內尚未有刻板印象威脅的相關研究出現，過去相關的刻板印象威脅研究對自我設限策略也少有探究，對於使用自我設限策略後是否讓自己表現不佳的風險更高亦少探討。因此，本研究除了探究個人在威脅情境中的「測驗表現」外，他（她）在情境中的「自我設限策略」之因應行為、及其自我設限策略的使用對測驗表現的影響亦是本研究關注的議題。 本研究為3(刻板印象威脅：威脅組女性、無威脅組女性、威脅組男性)×4(自我設限線索：宣稱組、行為組、宣稱行為組、以及不告知組)的實驗設計。其中，在刻板印象威脅部分，威脅組受試被告知「男性在此測驗中的表現比較好」，無威脅組受試被告知「男、女性的數學表現無差異」。在設限線索部分，宣稱組受試被告知「宣稱性自我設限對測驗表現有負向影響」，行為組受試被告知「行為性自我設限線索對測驗表現有負向影響」，宣稱行為組受試被告知「宣稱性與行為性自我設限皆對測驗表現有負向影響」。主要依變項有三：數學測驗分數、練習題的答題數目（行為性自我設限之指標）、宣稱性自我設限問卷分數（宣稱性自我設限之指標）。研究對象採用國立政治大學的大學女生158名與男生75名。 研究結果發現，不論設限線索的有效與否，處於威脅情境中的女性受試幾乎都比較傾向使用「宣稱性自我設限策略」以進行因應，其測驗表現也較差。另外，在威脅情境中，自尊越低的女性受試越傾向使用「宣稱性自我設限策略」。但不同「刻板印象威脅」組別的受試在測驗表現上無差異，亦即刻板印象威脅效果的現象並未在本研究獲得驗證，而各組在「行為性自我設限」的使用上亦無顯著差異。最後，研究者針對上述結果進行討論，並對本研究的限制與對未來研究的建議提出說明。

本研究目的在於探討與女性領導者有關的刻板印象與偏見是否會產生刻板印象威脅效果而影響女性的領導表現，以及是否可以消除或減少它對於個人表現的影響。本研究也探討「對特定領域的認同」及「對所屬團體的認同」在女性領導能力的範疇中，是否會使得刻板印象威脅對於個人表現有不同程度的影響效果。另外，本研究為了要更加確認威脅感的產生，故增加行為觀察的方式來測量焦慮的產生，以彌補自陳焦慮方法的不足。 本研究以60位國立政治大學女學生為研究對象，隨機分派至「激發刻板印象威脅」、「不激發刻板印象威脅」、及「減除刻板印象威脅」等三個情境。每位女性受試者另搭配一男一女成為一小組，每組由此位女性受試者擔任領導者，帶領小組討論並解決一新車分配問題。女性受試者的領導表現由自己、小組中的二位成員、以及不知道本研究目的與假設的評估者來予以衡量。另外，本研究除了由受試者及小組成員以情境焦慮量表來評估受試者的焦慮程度之外，也請不知道本研究目的與假設的評估者，以情境焦慮量表來評估受試者的焦慮程度，並觀察其焦慮行為，評量受試者在活動過程中顯出不舒服或不自然的程度及頻率。 研究結果顯示，「激發刻板印象威脅」情境與「不激發刻板印象威脅」情境的受試者在大部分領導表現變項上均無顯著差異；「激發刻板印象威脅」情境中的受試者在部分領導表現變項上的平均得分顯著低於「減除刻板印象威脅」情境中的受試者。在本研究中，性別認同程度及領域認同程度並不會影響刻板印象威脅與領導表現之間的關係。此外，三個實驗情境中受試者的情境焦慮程度及非語言焦慮並沒有顯著差異。 本文也針對研究結果進行整體性的討論，並提出可能的研究限制，及對於後續研究的建議。

La conduite automobile est une activité marquée par de nombreuses différences de sexe, notamment en termes de comportements et d’accidentologie. Ce travail cherche à comprendre le rôle des stéréotypes de sexe spécifiques à la conduite automobile (SSACA) dans l’explication de ces différences. L’objectif des recherches est ainsi d’analyser l’effet des SSACA sur les comportements autorapportés et effectifs reliés à la tâche de conduite, en prenant en compte les facteurs psychosociaux susceptibles d’influencer cet effet, et en étudiant l’effet du contexte sur ces relations grâce à l’effet de menace du stéréotype. Cette thèse montre ainsi que l’adhésion aux SSACA influence les comportements de conduite déclarés puisque, par exemple, quel que soit le sexe de l’individu, l’adhésion aux SSACA liés à un groupe de sexe est liée à une déclaration plus importante des comportements de conduite typiques de ce groupe. De plus, elle met en évidence que le facteur protecteur des comportements de violations est, chez les hommes, l’adoption des valeurs féminines et, chez les femmes, le sentiment de compétence en conduite. Enfin, cette thèse montre que ces SSACA entrent également en jeu dans les comportements effectifs lorsqu’il s’agit de réaliser une tâche en relation avec la conduite, mais que leurs effets sont différents en fonction de la consigne (menaçante ou non) et de la tâche à réaliser. Ce travail montre donc que les différents comportements de conduite ne sont pas seulement dus à des différences de capacités naturelles entre les sexes, mais qu’ils peuvent aussi s’expliquer par les croyances culturelles socialement construites relatives aux différences de sexe dans la conduite. / The activity of driving is marked by numerous sex differences, especially with regard to behaviour and road accidents. The present doctoral research aims at understanding the role of sex stereotypes specific to driving in explaining these differences. Therefore, the objective of the research work is to analyse the impact of sex stereotypes associated with driving (SSAD) on self-reported or actual behaviour on a task relating to driving. The analysis will take into account the psycho-social factors likely to influence this impact, and will also study the impact of the context on those relationships due to the deterrent effect of the stereotype. This doctoral work thus shows that adherence to SSAD has an impact on self-reported driving behaviour; for example, whatever the sex, adherence to SSAD associated to sex is linked to more frequent reporting of typical driving behaviour for this sex. Moreover, the research highlights the fact that the protective factor of violation behaviour is, among men, the adoption of feminine values, and, among women, a sense of competence as a driver. Finally, this research work shows that those stereotypes come into play in actual behaviour when it comes down to carrynig out a task relating to driving, but that the effects are different depending on the instructions (whether threatening or not) and the tasks to be carried out. As a conclusion, this doctoral research indicates that the different driving behaviours are not only due to differences in sex natural abilities, but they can also be explained by socially constructed cultural beliefs relating to driving sex differences.

In this thesis, I explore sex differences in adult human social learning, and how these sex differences might be underpinned by differences in risk-taking and confidence. The capacity for high-fidelity social learning is fundamental to the complex culture observed in humans. Examining when we choose to learn socially rather than asocially and the factors that influence these choices is valuable for understanding broader patterns of cultural evolution. In Chapter 1, I give an overview of the literature on sex differences in social learning, particularly how individual differences in risk-taking and confidence impact upon social information use. I introduce stereotype threat as a possible factor affecting women's confidence. I then use the stereotype threat literature as an example of the replication crisis in psychology, and discuss how improved methods of statistical analysis could help to elucidate the ambiguity in this literature. Chapter 2 provides an experimental investigation into when adult humans choose to use social or asocial information to solve a virtual construction task. I found that when the asocial information was made to be risky, women, but not men, preferred to learn socially. In Chapter 3, I present experimental data exploring the links between confidence and conformity. I found that lower confidence led to a greater likelihood of conforming, although I was unable to reliably alter confidence levels experimentally. In Chapter 4, I present a model of the stereotype threat literature by simulating numerous datasets and analysing them using four different statistical methods. I found that using informative priors in a Bayesian framework provided greater certainty about the presence or absence of an effect in a population. Finally, in Chapter 5 I conclude that studying the factors that lead to sex differences in social learning provides researchers with a greater understanding of the dynamics of cultural evolution.

The current research aims to integrate previous research on the host of negative consequences associated with women’s experience of stereotype threat in a science context. Using an expectancy-value framework, the current research explores potential indirect effects of a communal goal affordance intervention on science motivation, via stereotype threat, state anxiety, communal goal affordances, and belonging in science. Building upon the previous literature, the current research attempts to link stereotype threat to science motivation via communal goal affordances and state anxiety’s effect on belonging in science. Additionally, the current research attempts to illustrate the efficacy of a communal goal affordance intervention by increasing perceptions of communal goal affordances and reducing anxiety in a science context. The current study found no evidence of a successful implementation of the communal goal affordance intervention, as evident by non-significant results on parametric and non-parametric tests of central tendencies between interaction type. Additionally, no indirect effects on science motivation were discovered within either tested pathway. However, a significant positive relationship between stereotype threat and state anxiety, communal goal affordances and belonging in science, and belonging in science and science motivation were found. Limitations to the current study and the communal goal affordance intervention, as well as the implications for these findings and future directions for research are discussed.

Stereotype threat (Steele & Aronson, 1995) refers to the risk of confirming a negative stereotype about one’s group in a particular performance domain. The theory assumes that performance in the stereotyped domain is most negatively affected when individuals are more highly identified with the domain in question. As federal law has increased the importance of standardized testing at the elementary level, it can be reasonably hypothesized that the standardized test performance of African American children will be depressed when they are aware of negative societal stereotypes about the academic competence of African Americans. This sequential mixed-methods study investigated whether the standardized testing experiences of African American children in an urban elementary school are related to their level of stereotype awareness. The quantitative phase utilized data from 198 African American children at an urban elementary school. Both ex-post facto and experimental designs were employed. Experimental conditions were diagnostic and non-diagnostic testing experiences. The qualitative phase utilized data from a series of six focus group interviews conducted with a purposefully selected group of 4 African American children. The interview data were supplemented with data from 30 hours of classroom observations. Quantitative findings indicated that the stereotype threat condition evoked by diagnostic testing depresses the reading test performance of stereotype-aware African American children (F[1, 194] = 2.21, p < .01). This was particularly true of students who are most highly domain-identified with reading (F[1, 91] = 19.18, p < .01). Moreover, findings indicated that only stereotype-aware African American children who were highly domain-identified were more likely to experience anxiety in the diagnostic condition (F[1, 91] = 5.97, p < .025). Qualitative findings revealed 4 themes regarding how African American children perceive and experience the factors related to stereotype threat: (1) a narrow perception of education as strictly test preparation, (2) feelings of stress and anxiety related to the state test, (3) concern with what “others” think (racial salience), and (4) stereotypes. A new conceptual model for stereotype threat is presented, and future directions including implications for practice and policy are discussed.

Women in leadership positions may experience stereotype threat when explicitly or implicitly reminded of gender and leader stereotypes. Increased worry about potentially confirming the stereotype should affect their behavior and perceptions in leadership situations. I used a 3 (article) x 2 (confederate gender) between-participants design. Female participants read an article that either made stereotypes explicit (explicit threat), countered stereotypes (threat nullification), or did not include stereotype-relevant information (implicit threat) and were assigned to lead a male or female confederate through the construction of a Lego model. I hypothesized that women in the implicit threat conditions (implicit article; male confederate) would objectively and subjectively perform worse than women in the explicit and nullification article conditions and those working with a female confederate. Women should experience the situation more negatively in conditions of threat (explicit and implicit articles; male confederate). Confederate perceptions of the participants should be more negative, except competence, when participants performed well (explicit and nullification article; female confederate). Results partially supported the hypotheses. Women who led men objectively performed worse, perceived their own performance as worse, were perceived as less competent and overall less favorably by their employees, and experienced the situation more negatively than women who led women. The article had little impact on participants and outcomes. The findings suggest that female leaders may be unintentionally undermining themselves when stereotype reminders are present, such as when asked to lead a man in a masculine task. Experiencing stereotype threat may influence women to opt out of leadership due to their negative experiences and they may not earn promotions due to poor performance and coworkers’ negative perceptions of their behavior.

<p>The dissertation includes two independent chapters which investigated the experiences of individuals with disabilities in connection with societal attitudes regarding disability. The first article is a systematized review which analyzes and synthesizes the existing literature on implicit and explicit disability attitudes across multiple domains (e.g., educational; occupational; healthcare). Chapter 1 identifies common themes across the existing literature and identifies potential predictors and buffers of negative disability attitudes. The article concludes with a call to counseling psychologists to address negative disability attitudes utilizing the roles and themes of the field. Finally, suggestions are made regarding the development and implementation of interventions to help address negative disability attitudes and the subsequent harmful effects. </p><p>The second article is an empirical study that examines factors related to the persistence intentions of individuals with disabilities to address the high attrition rates of this population within postsecondary environments. A moderated mediation model is proposed to address four hypotheses. First, I hypothesized academic self-efficacy would mediate the relationship between stereotype threat and persistence intentions. Second, coping self-efficacy would mediate the relationship between stereotype threat and persistence intentions. Third, social self-efficacy would mediate the relationship between stereotype threat and persistence intentions. Fourth, I hypothesized that endorsing a growth mindset would buffer against the negative indirect relationship between stereotype threat and persistence intentions which operate through academic self-efficacy. Data were collected from postsecondary students who identified as having one or multiple diagnosed disabilities at a large public university in the Midwest. The study results supported my first hypothesis that academic self-efficacy would significantly mediate the relationship between stereotype threat and persistence intentions. Additionally, the results revealed that high levels of perceived stereotype threat were associated with lower levels of coping self-efficacy and social self-efficacy, as the researcher anticipated. However, our second and third hypotheses were rejected due to these mediating factors not significantly influencing a participants’ intentions to persist within the academic environment. Finally, the results suggested that one’s mindset of intelligence was a positive main effect predictor of academic self-efficacy. However, contrary to our fourth hypothesis, mindset of intelligence did not significantly moderate the negative indirect relation between stereotype threat and persistence intentions that operate through academic self-efficacy.</p>