O mel é um alimento de uso milenar, açucarado de fácil digestão, que constitui uma importante fonte de energia, contribuindo para o equilíbrio do processo biológico do corpo humano, sendo elaborado a partir da desidratação e transformação do néctar das flores nativas pelas abelhas produtoras. Para que o mel seja comercializado para o consumo humano, ele precisa atender aos requisitos mínimos de identidade e qualidade exigidos pela Legislação Brasileira. No Brasil a criação de abelhas é dividida em duas práticas distintas, a Apicultura tradicional, que utiliza as abelhas Apis mellifera e a Meliponicultura que utiliza as abelhas sem ferrão como a Jataí (Tetragonisca angustula). Os méis de abelhas sem ferrão tem maior valor comercial comparado ao mel tradicional, entretanto são comercializados sem uma legislação própria. Na literatura existem poucos trabalhos que tratam da composição destes tipos de méis que são popularmente conhecidos por suas propriedades benéficas à saúde. Em vista do exposto acima, o objetivo deste presente trabalho foi o de comparar a composição e a qualidade de méis de Apis mellifera com os de abelhas sem ferrão da espécie Tetragonisca angustula, popularmente conhecida como Jataí. Para tanto as amostras de méis foram obtidas de colméias de Apis mellifera e de Tetragonisca angustula de uma mesma região botânica, o que foi possível constatar que os méis de abelha Jataí apresentaram maior diversidade botânica em relação aos méis de Apis. Neste trabalho foram utilizados os métodos de avaliação estabelecidos pela Legislação Brasileira para qualidade de mel de Apis mellifera e os valores sugeridos para méis de mellponíneos do Brasil pe10s pesquisadores VILLAS - BOAS e MALASPINA (2005). A maioria das amostras de Apis apresentaram-se dentro da legislação vigente, enquanto méis Jataí apresentaram os parâmetros: umidade (23,40 -25,60%), acidez (21,65 - 63,85 mE/Kg) e açúcares redutores (44,78 - 67,54%) e sacarose aparente (0,43 - 1,60%) fora dos padrões estabelecido pela legislação vigente para os méis de Apis mellifera. No entanto, encontram-se dentro dos valores sugeridos para méís de meliponíneos brasileiros, pelos pesquisadores acima mencionados. Além das análises físico-químicas tradicionais e a análise polínica também foi determinada a composição nutricional, sendo que o mel de Apis apresentou maior de valor energético (43,58- 66,32 Kcal) em relação aos méis de Jataí (36,83 - 60,52 Kcal) (p<0,05). Também foram determinados os açúcares por CLAE, condutividade elétrica (uS/cm-1) e a análise de cor (mmPfund). As amostras de Apis mellifera apresentaram maior o teor glicose (%), frutose (%) e condutividade elétrica (uS/cm-1) em relação aos méis de Jataí Em relação as análises de cor notou-se maior predominância da coloração âmbar-claro, mas amostras analisadas. / Honey is considered as a food that provides energy, being elaborated from the dehydration and transformation of the nectar of the flowers by the bees. For the human consumption, honey needs to attend the minimum requirements of identity and quality demanded by the regulation. In Brazil beekeepers can be divided in two practical distinct ones: the traditional ones, which use Apis mellifera bees and the Meliponiculture which uses stingless bees such as Jataí bee (Tetragonisca angustula). There are no identity and quality parameters or regulation for this type of honey. Honey from of stingless bees are more expensive compared with the traditional honey, however their are commercialized without a proper regulation. In literature few works were found regarding the composition of these types of honey which are popularly known by its beneficiaI properties to human health. The objective of the present work is to compare the composition and quality of honey from Apis mellifera and from stingless bees (Tetragonisca angustula), popularly known as Jataí bee. Samples of honey were obtained from Apis mellifera and Tetragonisca angustula bees in the same botanical region. In this work the methods used were based on the Brazilian Regulation for quality control of honey from Apis mellifera and the values suggested for honeys of meliponíneos of Brazil for researchers VILLAS-BOAS and MALASPINA (2005). The majority of the samples of Apis had presented in accordance with the regulation while the Jataí honeys had presented: humidity (23,40 - 25.60%), acidity (21,65 - 63,85 mE/Kg) and reducing sugars (44,78 - 67.54%) are out of the standards for honeys of Apis mellifera. However, they are in accordance with the values suggested for honeys of Brazilian meliponíneos. The physicochemical, polinic and nutritional analysis were determined, and the honey of Apis bee presented greater amount of energy value (43,58 - 66,32 Kcal) in relation to the honeys of Jataí bee (36,83 - 60,52 Kcal) (p<O,05). The sugars for HPLC, electric conductivity (uS/cm-1) and analysis of color (mmPfund) were determined. Samples of Apis mellifera had presented greater values for glucose (%), frutose (%) and electric conductivity (uS/cm-1) in relation to the honeys from Jataí (p<0,05). Regarding the color analyses, it was predominance of the coloration clear -amber.

La nutrition est l'ensemble des processus par lesquels un être vivant transforme des aliments pour assurer son fonctionnement. Etudier la nutrition d’un organisme permet de comprendre les rapports entre la nourriture consommée et la santé de l’individu. L'ensemble des organes assurant l'extraction d'énergie est le système digestif, qui transforme les sucres en glucose, les corps gras en acides gras, et les protéines en acides aminés. L’objectif de cette étude est de déterminer l’influence que peut avoir la nutrition pollinique sur la santé de l’abeille domestique, Apis mellifera L.. Pour assurer cette nutrition, l’abeille est inféodée aux ressources florales. Du pollen récolté sur les plantes à fleurs, l’organisme puise les corps gras (ou lipides), les vitamines et les protéines. Or l’accès à ces ressources est variable en qualité, en quantité, et en diversité selon le temps et le milieu. Des problèmes de mortalités et affaiblissements des colonies sont observés depuis une vingtaine d’années, et l’une des causes suspectées est le manque de disponibilité et la faible valeur nutritionnelle des ressources polliniques en zones agricoles céréalières. Nous avons donc testé en conditions contrôlées les effets de la quantité, la qualité et la diversité pollinique sur la physiologie d’abeilles nourrices, sur leur immunité, ainsi que sur leur survie. La nutrition jouant un rôle essentiel dans la prévention de nombreuses maladies, les effets de l’alimentation pollinique ont été déterminés en présence ou non d’un stresseur biotique, Nosema ceranae, dont la prévalence dans les colonies est très élevée. Il s’agit d’une microsporidie invasive qui se développe dans l’intestin de son hôte, provoquant divers effets sublétaux et létaux. Etant donné que la valeur nutritionnelle d’un aliment dépend de sa composition mais aussi de sa digestibilité, une troisième partie porte sur l’influence que peut avoir le stresseur sur les capacités de digestion des protéines contenues dans le pollen par l’abeille. Nos résultats apportent des connaissances sur l’impact d’une déplétion en pollen que peuvent subir les colonies dans un paysage d’agriculture intensive. En effet, des abeilles carencées à plus ou moins 60 %, comme cela peut être observé entre deux cultures à floraison massives, subissent des perturbations au niveau individuel (perturbations du développement physiologique des abeilles nourrices, diminution de leur survie), ce qui peut les rendre moins performantes et plus sensibles aux stress présents dans l’environnement. De plus, nous avons pu démontrer que la valeur nutritionnelle des pollens, influence la tolérance des abeilles à Nosema ceranae. La qualité d’un pollen se définit par sa composition chimique totale (protéines, acides aminés, lipides, vitamines, sucres, etc…), et non pas uniquement par sa teneur en protéines ou acides aminés essentiels. Notre étude met d’ailleurs en évidence l’effet négatif d’une alimentation à base de pollen de maïs sur le développement des glandes hypopharyngiennes, l’expression du gène de la vitellogénine, et la survie des abeilles. Au regard de la présence élevée de cette culture dans les zones d’agriculture intensive et sa haute exploitation par les butineuses, nos résultats sont discutés en fonction des répercussions envisagées sur les colonies. Dans ces milieux, la diversité des ressources polliniques, par l’apport de pollens de qualité, compense la pauvreté nutritionnelle d’autres pollens. Dans nos conditions, nous pouvons observer la plus-value d’une alimentation pollinique polyflorale chez des abeilles infestées par Nosema. Les mesures agro-écologiques œuvrant pour régulariser dans le temps les apports polliniques aux colonies, et pour leur offrir une diversité alimentaire participent donc à renforcer leur capacité à lutter contre les stress présents dans l’environnement. / Nutrition is the set of processes by which a living organism transforms food for its functions. Studying nutrition allows to understanding the relationship between food intake and health of the individual. All organs for extracting energy are the digestive system, which converts sugars into glucose, fats into fatty acids, and proteins into amino acids. The objective of this study is to determine the possible influence of pollen nutrition on the honeybee health, Apis mellifera L. To ensure that nutrition, the bee is subservient to floral resources. Of pollen collected from the flowering plants, the body draws fats (or lipids), vitamins and proteins. Access to these resources is variable in quality, quantity, and diversity depending on the time and the environment. Problems of mortality and weakening of colonies are observed for some twenty years, and one of the suspected causes is the lack of availability and low nutritional value of pollen resources in agricultural areas. We therefore tested under controlled conditions the effects of quantity, quality and diversity of pollen on nurse worker physiology and on their immunity, as well as their survival. Nutrition plays a vital role in the prevention of many diseases, the effects of pollen diet were determined in the presence or absence of a biotic stressor, Nosema ceranae, whose prevalence in the colonies is very high. It is an invasive microsporidia that develops in the intestine of its host, causing various sublethal and lethal effects. Since the nutritional value of a food depends on its composition but also its digestibility, a third part focuses on the possible influence of the stressor on bee ability digestion of the proteins provided by the pollen.Our results provide knowledge on the impact of pollen depletion that may undergo the colonies in an intensive agricultural landscape. Indeed, bees starved to roughly 60%, as can be observed between two cultures massive flowering undergo disturbances at individual level (disturbances of nurse worker physiological development, reduced survival), which may make them less efficient and more susceptible to stress from the environment. In addition, we demonstrated that the nutritional value of pollen influences the Nosema ceranae‘s bee tolerance. The pollen quality is determined by the total chemical composition (proteins, amino acids, lipids, vitamins, sugars, etc ...), not only by its content of essential amino acids or proteins. Our study also demonstrated the negative effect of a diet based on maize pollen on hypopharyngeal glands development, the vitellogenin gene expression, and the bee survival. In view of the high presence of this culture in intensive agriculture areas and high exploitation by foragers, our results are discussed in terms of their impact on the proposed settlements. In these environments, the diversity of pollen resources by providing pollen of quality compensates nutritional poverty of other pollens. In our conditions, we can observe the gain of power of a polyfloral pollen in Nosema infested bees. Agro-ecological measures working to regularize, in time, the pollen contributions to the colonies, and to provide them with food diversity thus participate in building their capacity to fight against stress in the environment

O mel é um alimento de uso milenar, açucarado de fácil digestão, que constitui uma importante fonte de energia, contribuindo para o equilíbrio do processo biológico do corpo humano, sendo elaborado a partir da desidratação e transformação do néctar das flores nativas pelas abelhas produtoras. Para que o mel seja comercializado para o consumo humano, ele precisa atender aos requisitos mínimos de identidade e qualidade exigidos pela Legislação Brasileira. No Brasil a criação de abelhas é dividida em duas práticas distintas, a Apicultura tradicional, que utiliza as abelhas Apis mellifera e a Meliponicultura que utiliza as abelhas sem ferrão como a Jataí (Tetragonisca angustula). Os méis de abelhas sem ferrão tem maior valor comercial comparado ao mel tradicional, entretanto são comercializados sem uma legislação própria. Na literatura existem poucos trabalhos que tratam da composição destes tipos de méis que são popularmente conhecidos por suas propriedades benéficas à saúde. Em vista do exposto acima, o objetivo deste presente trabalho foi o de comparar a composição e a qualidade de méis de Apis mellifera com os de abelhas sem ferrão da espécie Tetragonisca angustula, popularmente conhecida como Jataí. Para tanto as amostras de méis foram obtidas de colméias de Apis mellifera e de Tetragonisca angustula de uma mesma região botânica, o que foi possível constatar que os méis de abelha Jataí apresentaram maior diversidade botânica em relação aos méis de Apis. Neste trabalho foram utilizados os métodos de avaliação estabelecidos pela Legislação Brasileira para qualidade de mel de Apis mellifera e os valores sugeridos para méis de mellponíneos do Brasil pe10s pesquisadores VILLAS - BOAS e MALASPINA (2005). A maioria das amostras de Apis apresentaram-se dentro da legislação vigente, enquanto méis Jataí apresentaram os parâmetros: umidade (23,40 -25,60%), acidez (21,65 - 63,85 mE/Kg) e açúcares redutores (44,78 - 67,54%) e sacarose aparente (0,43 - 1,60%) fora dos padrões estabelecido pela legislação vigente para os méis de Apis mellifera. No entanto, encontram-se dentro dos valores sugeridos para méís de meliponíneos brasileiros, pelos pesquisadores acima mencionados. Além das análises físico-químicas tradicionais e a análise polínica também foi determinada a composição nutricional, sendo que o mel de Apis apresentou maior de valor energético (43,58- 66,32 Kcal) em relação aos méis de Jataí (36,83 - 60,52 Kcal) (p<0,05). Também foram determinados os açúcares por CLAE, condutividade elétrica (uS/cm-1) e a análise de cor (mmPfund). As amostras de Apis mellifera apresentaram maior o teor glicose (%), frutose (%) e condutividade elétrica (uS/cm-1) em relação aos méis de Jataí Em relação as análises de cor notou-se maior predominância da coloração âmbar-claro, mas amostras analisadas. / Honey is considered as a food that provides energy, being elaborated from the dehydration and transformation of the nectar of the flowers by the bees. For the human consumption, honey needs to attend the minimum requirements of identity and quality demanded by the regulation. In Brazil beekeepers can be divided in two practical distinct ones: the traditional ones, which use Apis mellifera bees and the Meliponiculture which uses stingless bees such as Jataí bee (Tetragonisca angustula). There are no identity and quality parameters or regulation for this type of honey. Honey from of stingless bees are more expensive compared with the traditional honey, however their are commercialized without a proper regulation. In literature few works were found regarding the composition of these types of honey which are popularly known by its beneficiaI properties to human health. The objective of the present work is to compare the composition and quality of honey from Apis mellifera and from stingless bees (Tetragonisca angustula), popularly known as Jataí bee. Samples of honey were obtained from Apis mellifera and Tetragonisca angustula bees in the same botanical region. In this work the methods used were based on the Brazilian Regulation for quality control of honey from Apis mellifera and the values suggested for honeys of meliponíneos of Brazil for researchers VILLAS-BOAS and MALASPINA (2005). The majority of the samples of Apis had presented in accordance with the regulation while the Jataí honeys had presented: humidity (23,40 - 25.60%), acidity (21,65 - 63,85 mE/Kg) and reducing sugars (44,78 - 67.54%) are out of the standards for honeys of Apis mellifera. However, they are in accordance with the values suggested for honeys of Brazilian meliponíneos. The physicochemical, polinic and nutritional analysis were determined, and the honey of Apis bee presented greater amount of energy value (43,58 - 66,32 Kcal) in relation to the honeys of Jataí bee (36,83 - 60,52 Kcal) (p<O,05). The sugars for HPLC, electric conductivity (uS/cm-1) and analysis of color (mmPfund) were determined. Samples of Apis mellifera had presented greater values for glucose (%), frutose (%) and electric conductivity (uS/cm-1) in relation to the honeys from Jataí (p<0,05). Regarding the color analyses, it was predominance of the coloration clear -amber.

Edge Computing is considered one of the key capabilities in next generation (5G) networks, which will enable inundation of latency, throughput, and data sensitive edge-native applications. Edge application developers require infrastructure at the edge to host the application workload and network connectivity procedures to connect the application users to the nearest edge where the application workload is hosted. Distributed nature of edge infrastructure and the requirement on network connectivity makes it attractive for communication service providers (CSPs) to become Edge Service providers (ESP); similarly, hyper-scale cloud providers (HCPs) are also planning to expand as ESP building on their cloud presence targeting edge application developers. CSPs across the globe follow a standard approach for building interoperable networks and infrastructure, while HCPs do not participate in telecom standardization bodies. Standards development organizations (SDOs) such as the European Telecommunication Standardization Institute (ETSI) and 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) are working to provide a standard architecture for edge computing solution for service providers. However, the current focus of SDOs is more on architecture and not much focus on application developer experience and the Application Programming Interfaces (APIs). On the architecture itself, there are different standards and approaches available which overlap with each other. APIs proposed by different SDOs are not easily consumable by edge application developers and require simplification. On the other hand, there are not many widely known standards in the hyper-scale cloud and public cloud industry to integrate with each other except the public application programming interfaces (APIs) offered by cloud providers. To scale and succeed, edge service providers need to focus on interoperability, not only from a cloud infrastructure perspective but from a network connectivity perspective as well. This work analyzes standards defined by different standardization bodies in the 5G edge computing area and the overlaps between the standards. The work then highlights the requirements from an edge application developer perspective, investigates the deficiencies of the standards, and proposes an end-to-end edge solution architecture and a method to simplify the APIs which fulfil the need for edge-native applications. The proposed solution considers CSPs providing multi-cloud infrastructure for edge computing by integrating with HCPs infrastructure. In addition, the work investigates existing standards to integrate cloud capabilities in network platforms and elaborates the way network and cloud computing capabilities can be integrated to provide complete edge service to edge application developers or enterprises. It proposes an alternative way to integrate edge application developers with cloud service providers dynamically by offering a catalog of services. / Edge Computing anses vara en av nyckelfunktionerna i nästa generations (5G) nätverk, vilket möjliggör minskad fördröjning, ökad genomströmning och datakänsliga och kantnära applikationer. Applikationsutvecklare för Edge Computing är beroende av kantinfrastruktur som är värd för applikationen, och nätverksanslutning för att ansluta applikationsanvändarna till närmaste kant där applikationens är placerad. Även om kantapplikationer kan vara värd för vilken infrastruktur som helst, planerar leverantörer av kommunikationstjänster (CSP:er) att erbjuda distribuerad kantinfrastruktur och anslutningar. På liknande sätt planerar även molnleverantörer med hög skalbarhet (HCP) att erbjudakantinfrastruktur. CSP:er följer standardmetoden för att bygga nätverk och infrastruktur medan HCP:er inte deltar i standardiseringsorgan. Standardutvecklingsorganisationer (SDO) som europeisk telekommunikations standardiseringsinstitut (ETSI) och 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) arbetar för att tillhandahålla en standardarkitektur för Edge Computing för tjänsteleverantörer. Men nuvarande fokus är mer på arkitektur och inte mycket fokus är riktat mot applikationsutvecklares erfarenhet och API:er. I själva arkitekturen finns det olika standarder och tillvägagångssätt som överlappar varandra. API:er föreslagna av olika SDO:er är inte lättillgängliga för utvecklar av kantapplikationer och måste förenklas. Å andra sidan finns det inte många allmänt kända standarder i hyperskalära moln och offentlig molnindustri som går att integrera med varandra förutom de offentliga gränssnitten för applikationsprogrammering (API:er) som erbjuds av molnleverantörer. För att kunna betjäna omfattande applikationsutvecklare måste CSP:er erbjuda multimolnfunktioner och därmed komplettera sin egen infrastruktur med kapaciteten för HCP:er. På liknande sätt kommer HCP:er att behöva integrera anslutningstjänster utöver infrastruktur för att erbjuda kantfunktioner. Den här arbetet beskriver olika standarder definierade av olika standardiseringsorgan i Edge Computing-området för 5G, och analyzerar överlappningar mellan standarderna. Arbetet belyser sedan kraven från ett utvecklingsperspektiv av kantapplikationer, undersöker bristerna i standarderna och föreslår en lösningsarkitektur som uppfyller behovet för kantbyggda applikationer. Den föreslagna lösningen beaktar CSP:er som tillhandahåller flermolnsinfrastruktur för Edge Computing genom att integreras med HCP:s infrastruktur. Arbetet undersöker vidare befintliga standarder för att integrera molnfunktioner i nätverksplattformar och utvecklar på vilket sätt nätverks- och molntjänster kan integreras för att erbjuda kompletta tjänster till utvecklare av kantapplikationer. Arbetet föreslår ett alternativt sätt att dynamiskt integrera utvecklare av kantapplikationer med leverantörer av molntjänster genom att erbjuda en katalog av tjänster.

Thesis (MScConEcol (Conservation Ecology and Entomology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Insect pollinators play an important role in producing crops in global agriculture. Pollinatordependent crops contribute to maintaining a healthy variety in the human diet and often have a high market value, beneficial for local or regional economies. Insect crop pollinators can either be from natural areas adjacent to orchards, or they can be brought into orchards by beekeepers that manage them. Pollination by wild pollinators is an ecosystem service, while managed pollinators (mostly honeybees) is a humanly managed service, considered not to be related to the ecosystem. Ecosystem services and their economic value have often been used as an incentive for conservation, although it is sometimes difficult to characterise and quantify them. Wild and managed pollinators have been reported to be threatened in several regions around the world, and there is concern about the effect a pollination deficit may have on crop production. Different crops and cultivars have different levels of dependence on insect pollination due to a combination of biological, physical and management factors. In this study, the pollination dependence of the Granny Smith apple cultivar and the respective contributions of wild and managed pollinators are investigated in the Western Cape province of South Africa. Granny Smith apples show a significant increase in production with insect pollination (wild and managed). Managed honeybees are more abundant in orchards than wild honeybees, and also provide a better pollination service. This difference between the pollination service of wild and managed honeybees are specifically noted in the quality, where managed honeybees pollination result in significantly more seeds per fruit and consequently produce a better shaped apple. The study goes further by quantifying the ecosystem services to the managed honeybee industry through a questionnaire completed by beekeepers. It was found that 49% of the managed hives in the Western Cape rely to some extent on natural vegetation as a forage source. Furthermore 18% of honey produced is also from natural vegetation and the wild honeybee population replenish managed honeybee stocks if they become depleted. Although managed honeybees are not usually considered an ecosystem service, it is clear that they are still linked to the ecosystem via these pathways. It is thus obvious that all pollination sources are linked to the environment, not just wild pollinators. A further economic valuation of the ecosystem service studied, and to the argument for conservation of pollinators and the resources they depend on. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Insek bestuiwing speel ‘n belangrike rol in die produksie van gewasse in landbou wêreldwyd. Gewasse wat bestuiwing-afhanklik is, dra by tot ‘n gesonde verskeidenheid in die mens se dieët en hul hoë mark waarde is voordelig vir plaaslike en streeks ekonomieë. Insek bestuiwers kan of van natuurlike areas langs boorde afkomstig wees, of bestuurde bestuiwers kan deur byeboere in boorde ingebring word. Bestuiwing deur wilde bestuiwers is ‘n ekosisteem diens, maar die byeboere verskaf ‘n bestuurde diens, wat nie altyd gereken word om aan die ekosisteem verwant te wees nie. Ekosisteem dienste en hul ekonomiese waarde word gereeld gebruik as insentief vir bewaring, alhoewel dit soms moeilik is om dit te karaktariseer en te kwantifiseer. In sekere streke wêreldwyd is dit bewys dat wilde, asook bestuurde bestuiwers, bedreig is en daar heers bekommernis dat ‘n tekort aan bestuiwers gewas produksie negatief sal beïnvloed. Verskillende gewasse en kultivars het verskillende vlakke van bestuiwing-afhanklikheid as gevolg van verskillende biologiese en fisiese faktore en bestuurspraktyke. In hierdie studie is die bestuiwings-afhanklikheid van die Granny Smith appel kultivar ondersoek, asook die bydrae van wilde en bestuurde heuningbye in die Wes-Kaap provinsie van Suid Afrika. Granny Smith appels toon ‘n betekenisvolle produksie verbetering met insek bestuiwing (wilde en bestuurde bye). Daar is ‘n groter hoeveelheid bestuurde bye in ‘n boord as wilde bye, en hulle verskaf ook dus ‘n beter bestuiwingsdiens. Die voordeel van bestuurde bye bo wilde bye word veral in vrug kwaliteit opgemerk. As bestuurde bye gebruik word, is daar betekenisvol meer sade per vrug en gevolglik het die appels ook ‘n beter vorm. Verder fokus die studie ook op die kwantifisering van ekosisteem dienste wat aan die bestuurde heuningby industrie verskaf word, deur inligting van byeboere te gebruik. Daar is bevind dat 49% van die kolonies bestuurde bye in die Wes- Kaap is tot ‘n mate afhanklik van natuurlike plantegroei vir voedsel. Verder is 18% van die geproduseerde heuning ook afkomstig van natuurlike plantegroei se nektar en byeboere vang wilde kolonies om uitgestorwe bestuurde kolonies te vervang. Dit is dus duidelik dat alle bestuiwings bronne gekoppel is aan die omgewing, nie slegs wilde bestuiwers nie. ‘n Verdere ekonomiese waardasie van die onderskeie ekosisteem dienste wat bestudeer is, voeg motivering by tot die bewaring van bestuiwers en die hulpbronne waarvan hulle afhanklik is.

La malnutrition est identifiée comme l’un des facteurs potentiellement responsables des mortalités élevées de colonies d’abeilles des dernières années au Québec. Pour contrer cela, les apiculteurs donnent des suppléments de pollen à leurs colonies, mais les impacts d’une telle pratique à diverses périodes sont méconnus. Les effets de la disponibilité du pollen sur le développement de colonies d’abeilles ont été mesurés pendant 3 différentes périodes : au printemps, durant la pollinisation de la canneberge et à la fin de l’été. À chacune des périodes correspondait une expérience distincte utilisant 40 colonies. Pour chaque expérience, des conditions d’abondance de supplément de pollen et de restriction de pollen naturel étaient créées chez les colonies pendant un mois selon un plan d’expérience factorielle 2x2. L’élevage du couvain et la récolte de miel ont été mesurés jusqu’à la fin de l’été (début de l’été suivant pour l’expérience de fin d’été). Au printemps, les colonies restreintes en pollen naturel ont élevé 18% moins de couvain (p<0.05) pendant la période de restriction et 11% de moins à la fin de l’été alors que l’utilisation du supplément n’a eu aucun effet (p>0.05). Les colonies supplémentées durant la pollinisation des canneberges ont élevé moins de couvain (p<0.05) à la fin de l’été. Pour l’expérience de fin d’été, les colonies supplémentées ont eut une meilleure reprise printanière (p<0.05) de l’élevage du couvain (60% de plus) alors qu’une restriction en pollen naturel avait un effet négatif (p>0.05). Les récoltes de miel ont été augmentées (p<0.05) de 1,3 kg pendant la pollinisation de la canneberge alors qu’elles ont été diminuées (p<0.05)par une restriction en pollen naturel de 4,2 kg à la fin de l’été et de 15 kg au printemps. / The use of pollen supplement is a countermeasure to honey bee malnutrition which is identified as one of the factors causing high colonies losses over the past few years in Quebec. There is little documentation on the results of using pollen supplement during different periods. The effects of pollen availability and supplementation on the development of honey bee colonies were examined during 3 different periods: in spring, during cranberry pollination and in late summer. Each period was a distinct study using 40 different colonies. In each study, pollen supplemented and pollen restricted conditions were created for one month in 10 colonies per treatment group in a 2x2 factorial design experiment. Brood rearing and honey yield were monitored until the end of summer for the spring and the cranberry pollination studies and until the end of the following spring for the late summer study. In the spring study, pollen restricted colonies reared 18% less brood (p<0.05) during the restriction period and 11% less brood (p<0.05) by the end of summer while pollen supplement had no effect (p>0.05). Colonies supplemented during cranberry pollination study reared less brood (p<0.05) by the end of summer. In the late summer study, supplemented colonies had a greater (p<0.05) spring build-up (60% more brood) and pollen restriction negatively influence (p<0.05) brood rearing. Honey yield was decreased (p<0.05) by 15 kg in colonies exposed to a pollen restriction in spring. It was increased by 1.3 kg (p<0.05) in pollen supplemented colonies during the cranberry pollination study and was reduced by 4.2 kg (p<0.05) in pollen restricted colonies in the late summer study. In conclusion, pollen supplement improved colonies population when fed in late summer and not during spring or in cranberry pollination and was without impact on honey yield.

Cette thèse porte sur la mise au point de formulations de nanoparticules lipidiques à base de polyoxylglycérides afin d’assurer la protection de principes actifs instables chimiquement et physiquement, la quercétine (un flavonoïde antioxydant fragile) dans le cas présent. Différents systèmes dispersés ont été préparés par homogénéisation haute pression à chaud avec une taille des particules blanches entre 100 - 200 nm. Ces nanodispersions sont très stables sur plusieurs années à température ambiante. L’encapsulation de la quercétine, dans les nanoparticules lipidiques multicompartimentées et la préparation de nanocristaux ont permis d’augmenter fortement sa teneur dans la dispersion et d’améliorer effectivement sa stabilité physico-chimique. / This thesis focuses on the development of polyoxylglycérides-based lipid nanoparticles to protect labile APIs, quercetin (a fragile antioxidant flavonoid) in this case. Different nanoparticulate systems were prepared by high pressure homogenization with particle size between 100 to 200 nm. These nanodispersions are very stable over several years at room temperature. Encapsulation of quercetin in compartmented lipid nanoparticles and preparation of nanocrystals have increased significantly its content in the dispersion and effectively improve its physical and chemical stability.

Les abeilles et les parasitoïdes de pucerons courent le risque d'exposition à des insecticides qui ne leur sont pas destinés. Nos objectifs consistent à évaluer ce risque sur le terrain et à contribuer à mettre au point des tests de toxicité létale et sublétale en laboratoire pour les deux types d'insectes. <br />A Madagascar, nous avons mené une enquête pour déterminer l'impact de pratiques paysannes en matière de protection de cultures d'agrumes sur les abeilles, et une expérimentation en parcelle de choux pour évaluer les effets de traitements insecticides sur les Hyménoptères parasites de pucerons. En France, nous avons déterminé en laboratoire les toxicités aiguës de la deltaméthrine, de la lambda cyhalothrine, du chlorpyriphos éthyle et du pyrimicarbe, pour les abeilles et le parasitoïde de pucerons, Aphidius ervi. Nous avons analysé, chez l'abeille, certaines causes de variabilité des doses létales à 50%. Nous avons également déterminé les effets d'insecticides sur le comportement d'orientation olfactive en olfactomètre chez l'abeille et A. ervi. <br />A Madagascar, le traitement pendant la floraison existe et les apiculteurs constatent des effets négatifs sur leurs ruches. L'expérimentation en parcelle de chou montre que le traitement insecticide contribue à retarder l'action des Hyménoptères parasites de pucerons. <br />En laboratoire, la toxicité varie en fonction du mode de pénétration et de la nature des matières actives. Chez l'abeille, les toxicités par ingestion collective et individuelle ne sont pas toujours comparables. L'importance du phénomène de trophallaxie dans cette différence a été précisée. Ainsi, la valeur de DL50 exprimée en ng/abeille dépend des conditions expérimentales. Les abeilles et A. ervi ayant survécu aux traitements insecticides et testés en olfactomètre, ne montrent pas ou peu de changement de comportement d'orientation vis-à-vis de l'odeur utilisée. Par contre, les abeilles recevant des DL20 et DL50 de deltaméthrine ont une capacité locomotrice réduite. Cette perturbation pourrait avoir des effets non négligeables sur les insectes auxiliaires dans un environnement pollué par les insecticides

Honey bees, Apis mellifera, play an important role in many ecosystems, pollinating a wide variety of native, agricultural, and exotic plants. The recent decline in the number of feral and managed honey bee colonies in North America, as well as the arrival of Africanized honey bees, have caused concern about adequate pollination for agricultural crops and natural plant communities. However, little is known about feral colonies, and the feral population is the source for Africanized honey bees as they spread and infiltrate managed populations. The goal of my dissertation was to examine the ecology of feral honey bee colonies, adding the spatial context necessary to understand the population ecology and patterns of resource use by feral honey bees on the Welder Wildlife Refuge. I defined the functional heterogeneity of feral honey bee habitat by identifying the suitability of different habitats for feral colonies based on the distribution and abundance of important resources (cavities, nectar, and pollen). I evaluated the distribution and abundance of feral colonies by examining nest site characteristics, population trends, and spatial and temporal patterns in cavity use. Lastly, I examined resource use by evaluating patterns in pollen collection and identifying where and when honey bees searched for resources. Overall, the Welder Wildlife Refuge provided excellent habitat for feral honey bees, supporting a high density of feral colonies. The dense live oak habitat was the best overall source for cavities, nectar, and pollen. Nectar and pollen were abundant throughout the year, with the exception of December and January, when a large number of honey bees searched for resources. Cavities did not appear to vary in their suitability for feral colonies based on measured structural and environmental attributes, since no cavity attributes were correlated with indices of cavity quality. However, the cavity quality indices varied between cavities, suggesting some cavities were more suitable for feral honey bees than others. Colonies were aggregated within the study area, probably due to the distribution of resources. The invasion of Africanized honey bees appeared to fragment the existing European population, with Africanized colonies aggregated in distribution and European colonies random in distribution.

La malnutrition est identifiée comme l’un des facteurs potentiellement responsables des mortalités élevées de colonies d’abeilles des dernières années au Québec. Pour contrer cela, les apiculteurs donnent des suppléments de pollen à leurs colonies, mais les impacts d’une telle pratique à diverses périodes sont méconnus. Les effets de la disponibilité du pollen sur le développement de colonies d’abeilles ont été mesurés pendant 3 différentes périodes : au printemps, durant la pollinisation de la canneberge et à la fin de l’été. À chacune des périodes correspondait une expérience distincte utilisant 40 colonies. Pour chaque expérience, des conditions d’abondance de supplément de pollen et de restriction de pollen naturel étaient créées chez les colonies pendant un mois selon un plan d’expérience factorielle 2x2. L’élevage du couvain et la récolte de miel ont été mesurés jusqu’à la fin de l’été (début de l’été suivant pour l’expérience de fin d’été). Au printemps, les colonies restreintes en pollen naturel ont élevé 18% moins de couvain (p<0.05) pendant la période de restriction et 11% de moins à la fin de l’été alors que l’utilisation du supplément n’a eu aucun effet (p>0.05). Les colonies supplémentées durant la pollinisation des canneberges ont élevé moins de couvain (p<0.05) à la fin de l’été. Pour l’expérience de fin d’été, les colonies supplémentées ont eut une meilleure reprise printanière (p<0.05) de l’élevage du couvain (60% de plus) alors qu’une restriction en pollen naturel avait un effet négatif (p>0.05). Les récoltes de miel ont été augmentées (p<0.05) de 1,3 kg pendant la pollinisation de la canneberge alors qu’elles ont été diminuées (p<0.05)par une restriction en pollen naturel de 4,2 kg à la fin de l’été et de 15 kg au printemps. / The use of pollen supplement is a countermeasure to honey bee malnutrition which is identified as one of the factors causing high colonies losses over the past few years in Quebec. There is little documentation on the results of using pollen supplement during different periods. The effects of pollen availability and supplementation on the development of honey bee colonies were examined during 3 different periods: in spring, during cranberry pollination and in late summer. Each period was a distinct study using 40 different colonies. In each study, pollen supplemented and pollen restricted conditions were created for one month in 10 colonies per treatment group in a 2x2 factorial design experiment. Brood rearing and honey yield were monitored until the end of summer for the spring and the cranberry pollination studies and until the end of the following spring for the late summer study. In the spring study, pollen restricted colonies reared 18% less brood (p<0.05) during the restriction period and 11% less brood (p<0.05) by the end of summer while pollen supplement had no effect (p>0.05). Colonies supplemented during cranberry pollination study reared less brood (p<0.05) by the end of summer. In the late summer study, supplemented colonies had a greater (p<0.05) spring build-up (60% more brood) and pollen restriction negatively influence (p<0.05) brood rearing. Honey yield was decreased (p<0.05) by 15 kg in colonies exposed to a pollen restriction in spring. It was increased by 1.3 kg (p<0.05) in pollen supplemented colonies during the cranberry pollination study and was reduced by 4.2 kg (p<0.05) in pollen restricted colonies in the late summer study. In conclusion, pollen supplement improved colonies population when fed in late summer and not during spring or in cranberry pollination and was without impact on honey yield.