Les besoins en pétrole ont généré des dépendances et des fragilités, autant au niveau des pays consommateurs, que producteurs. Cette ressource a un rôle stratégique dans notre société, notamment dans le transport. Les NOCs (compagnies nationales pétrolières) en sont des acteurs centraux, qui poursuivent leurs objectifs, mais aussi des intérêts de l’Etat. Les pays dits BRIC (Brésil, Russie, Inde et Chine) sont des économies avec une influence significative sur le marché de l’énergie. Nous analysons deux comportements des NOCs pour améliorer la sécurité énergétique nationale : l’intégration verticale pour les pays consommateurs (Inde et Chine) et l’exploration réalisée par les coentreprises en partenariat avec les IOCs (compagnies privées) pour les producteurs (Brésil et Russie). Nous utilisons des méthodes économétriques et le calcul de rentabilité d’un projet d’exploration. Nous estimons le coût d’opportunité lié à un retard de la production. Le sujet est pertinent, dans un contexte d’instabilité politique de certains producteurs de pétrole et un prix du brut faible depuis la moitié de l’année 2014, obligeant les compagnies à revoir leurs stratégies. / Oil needs have generated dependencies and fragilities for producing and consuming countries. This resource plays a strategic role in our modern society. NOCs (National Oil Companies) are main actors pursuing, in addition to their objectives, State’s interest. BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and China) are economies with a significant influence on the energy market. In this research, we analyze two NOCs’ behaviors to improve national energy security: vertical integration for the consuming countries (India and China) and joint-ventures with IOCs (private companies) in exploration for the producing countries (Brazil and Russia). We use econometric methods and the profitability calculation in an exploration project. We calculate the opportunity cost related to a production delay. The subject is particularly relevant, in a context of political instability of certain oil producing areas and also with a low crude price since mid-2014, forcing oil companies to review their strategies.

The matter of sustainable thinking today permeates the Western world and is now widely agreed to recognize three aspects; environmental, economic and social sustainability. Due to limitations of resources and knowledge, this concept is considerably less widespread in developing countries. Many sustainable ventures in developing countries aim to unite the three aspects and solve the pressing issue of unsustainable development, but evaluating these projects has proven to be a challenging task and tools for systematic analysis are missing. Furthermore, current frameworks lack in guidance on what tools to use for the assessment of the three sustainability aspects. This research aims to investigate how established models can be applied and what obstacles that occur when evaluating a sustainable venture in a developing country. To do this, a case study is performed on Zanzibar, Tanzania where the Swedish waste management company Zanrec is considering pursuing a sustainable venture of starting up a biodiesel production from used cooking oil. This research therefore also provides Zanrec with an evaluation of the project’s alignment with the sustainability concept. To reach the purpose of this study, two established models for evaluation are chosen; LCA for the environmental aspect and the payback method as capital budgeting tool for the economic aspect. No established evaluation tool is used for the social aspect; instead the social implications of the project are analyzed in a discussion. It is found that the applicability of the chosen tools for evaluating the biodiesel production project is highly affected by the contextual setting of a developing country. The major finding is that these tools have varying flexibility in adapting to the main challenge, which is the lack of documentation and available data. LCA is found to be a complicated and rigid tool to use if fully abiding by its associated ISO standards. Without an existing LCA knowledge base and any guidelines on how to manage missing data, the LCA tool is deemed to not reach its full potential in a developing country at this stage. The payback method is proven to be a more flexible tool that to a higher degree can be adapted to fit the setting and the requirements of the commissioner. The project’s impact areas related to the social aspect are found to be few, but to evaluate the extent of these, further research is required. / Hållbart företagande genomsyrar idag västvärlden och det är nu allmänt vedertaget att konceptet täcker in tre aspekter; miljömässig, ekonomisk och social hållbarhet. På grund av begränsningar i resurser och kunskap är hållbarhetskonceptet långt ifrån lika utbrett i utvecklingsländer. Hållbarhetsprojekt i utvecklingsländer syftar till att förena de tre aspekterna och lösa den rådande frågan om ohållbar utveckling, men det har visat sig vara en utmaning att utvärdera dessa projekt och det saknas verktyg för systematisk analys. Vidare saknar existerande modeller riktlinjer om vilka verktyg som bör användas i utvärderingen av de tre hållbarhetsaspekterna. Studien syftar till att undersöka hur etablerade utvärderingsverktyg kan tillämpas för att utvärdera ett hållbarhetsprojekt i ett utvecklingsland samt vilka hinder som detta innefattar. En fallstudie har därför utförts på Zanzibar i Tanzania, där det svenska  avfallshanteringsföretaget Zanrec överväger att genomföra ett hållbarhetsprojekt som ämnar att upprätta produktion av biodiesel från använd matolja. Därigenom syftar denna undersökning även till att förse Zanrec med en utvärdering av projektet med avseende på de de tre hållbarhetsaspekterna. I denna studie används två etablerade modeller; LCA för miljöaspekten och payback-metoden som investeringskalkylsmodell för den ekonomiska aspekten. Inget etablerat utvärderingsverktyg används för den sociala aspekten vars påverkan av projektet istället analyseras i en diskussion. Det har visat sig att tillämpbarheten av de valda verktygen för utvärdering av  biodieselprojektet i hög grad påverkas av de kontextuella förutsättningarna i ett utvecklingsland. Den viktigaste slutsatsen är att dessa verktyg har varierande flexibilitet i att anpassa sig till bristen på dokumentation och tillgänglig data, vilket är den största svårigheten. LCA har bedömts vara ett komplicerat verktyg med fasta ramar vid användning i enlighet med dess ISO-standarder. Utan en befintlig kunskapsbas kring LCA och riktlinjer för hur man ska hantera avsaknad av data, anses LCA-verktyget i dagsläget inte nå sin fulla potential i ett utvecklingsland. Paybackmetoden har visat sig vara ett mer flexibelt verktyg som i högre grad kan anpassas efter rådande förutsättningar och kraven hos uppdragsgivaren. Endast ett fåtal inverkansområden med anknytning till den sociala aspekten har identifierats som påverkade av detta projekt, men för att utvärdera omfattningen av dess påverkan behövs vidare studier.

Consciousness about the need for a more sustainable consumption and production patterns, as well as the will to cope with issues such as social exclusion and poverty, rose in the last decades. To answer such problems, new forms of social ventures have emerged on markets, including under the legal form of corporations. Social corporations are fully-fledged limited companies that officially commit themselves to a social mission by including the latter in their bylaws. Through their commercial activities, these new forms of social ventures target a specific social outcome. Either the whole population or a targeted group can benefit from this outcome. Thus, social corporations aim to pursue the common good. Entitled “Social Ventures and the Commons”, this doctoral dissertation aims to understand how new alternative profit-seeking business models, such as social corporations, can manage and contribute to the governance of common goods. With her seminal work, Elinor Ostrom widened the path for scholars to study the commons. Ever since, the academic world has extensively relied on her eight design principles when researching commons, allowing for a varied literature on the topic and the emergence of a paradigm in recent years; however, features of this paradigm are still fuzzy as different views and concepts of commons exist. While Ostrom conducted her research on the governance of traditional commons mainly, i.e. local natural resources collectively managed, the emergence of new concepts calls for a better of their governance mechanisms. Amongst the different concepts of commons existing, new commons have recently emerged. New commons are resources that have newly been recognized as commons. They derive from the principle of “commoning”: they are shared resources collectively organized and managed and can take the form of human-made commons, like culture, knowledge or urban spaces. They can be created both by humans and/or by organizations that are managed collectively. The first chapter of the dissertation, in the form of a conceptual paper, sheds light on the capacity of new alternative profit-seeking business models to govern new commons; a topic left out by scholars so far. It states under which conditions such unconventional forms of market-oriented organizations can contribute to the governance of commons and thus become commons-governing companies. Theoretical management principles applicable in the context of commons-governing companies are proposed and guide them to implement collective action through co-management with external and/or internal stakeholders. The second chapter of the dissertation presents an original global typology of social corporations that distinguishes between three generic types according to their legal structure and underlying motivation to integrate a social mission into their bylaws. It identifies four core social corporation governance elements: voting rights implementation, profit distribution, property regime, and ownership structure. Additionally, the typology is complemented with a multiple case study of three social corporations (one per generic type). The case study focuses on the five governance capabilities that social corporations develop to be sustainable in the long run, and that relate to the three main pillars of performance, conformance, and responsibility. The third and last chapter of the thesis aims to comprehend the governance mechanisms developed by social corporations governing new commons. To do so, it draws from the community-based enterprise theory and the theory of the commons. I use qualitative data used collected within three community-based enterprises governing commons, and that adopt a social corporation legal form, in the United Kingdom. These organizations vary by date of creation, size, location, legal form, and types of new commons they contribute to. Findings show that these ventures design a triple-levelled goal governance to (1) manage the organization, (2) govern the commons, and (3) foster social good in the community. This doctoral dissertation primarily aims to contribute to the field of entrepreneurship. First, it contributes to social entrepreneurship by embracing the growing phenomenon of profit-seeking social ventures and provides with a better comprehension of their governance mechanisms, also when governing commons. Second, it sustains the development and understanding of the newly recognized entrepreneurship theory of commons. It does so by understanding how privately-held profit-seeking social ventures – social corporations – contribute to the provision of commons and become commons-governing companies. / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

The challenge to obtain early-stage funding for small ventures is especially pronounced in Africa, where traditional funding sources are available only to a small extent. This lack, combined with the diffusion of mobile phones and internet access, enabled the unprecedented rise of mobile payments on a personal level in Africa in recent years. On a commercial level, ICT-enabled crowdfunding is given the potential to mitigate the early-stage funding gap for African entrepreneurs. Using exploratory research, the dissertation provides initial empirical evidence on crowdfunding in Sub-Saharan Africa. In particular, it is shown that African entrepreneurs across the continent can raise substantial amounts of money by tapping into the global funding community. Moreover, empirical evidence is provided, that the basic economic constructs, institutions and infrastructure appear to play a decisive role for African crowdfunding and that their effect size depends on the respective institutional setting.:1. Introduction 2. Prevailing Forms of Funding for African Entrepreneurs 2.1 Informal Funding 2.2 Government Funding 2.3 Business Angels 2.4 Venture Capital 2.5 Factoring and Leasing 2.6 Banking Loans 2.7 Mobile Money 2.8 Microfinance 2.9 Summary 3. Crowdfunding 3.1 Definition of Crowdfunding 3.2 Taxonomy of Crowdfunding 3.3 Donation-based Crowdfunding 3.3.1 Characteristics 3.3.2 Platforms 3.3.3 Empirical Research 3.4 Reward-based Crowdfunding 3.4.1 Characteristics 3.4.2 Platforms 3.4.3 Empirical Research 3.5 Debt-based Crowdfunding 3.5.1 Characteristics 3.5.2 Platforms 3.5.3 Empirical Research 3.6 Equity-based Crowdfunding 3.6.1 Characteristics 3.6.2 Platforms 3.6.3 Empirical Research 3.7 The Emergence of Crowdfunding 3.8 The Worldwide Crowdfunding Market 3.9 The African Crowdfunding Market 4. Evidence on the Use of Reward-based Crowdfunding in Africa 4.1 Research Objective 4.2 Research Design and Methodology 4.3 Data Sample 4.3.1 Data Set Construction 4.3.2 Variables 4.4 Results 4.4.1 Project and Platform Results 4.4.2 Category Results 4.4.3 Country Results 4.5 Summary and Critical Reflection 5. National Competitiveness 5.1 What is National Competitiveness? 5.2 The Global Competitiveness Report 5.3 The Global Competitiveness Index 6. Evidence on Enabling Economic Factors for the Usage of Reward-based Crowdfunding in Africa 6.1 Research Objective 6.2 Research Design and Methodology 6.3 Data Sample 6.3.1 Data Set Construction 6.3.2 Variables 6.4 Results 6.4.1 Total Sample 6.4.2 Low-Income Countries 6.4.3 Middle-Income Countries 6.4.4 Below-Median Crowdfunding Activity Countries 6.4.5 Above-Median Crowdfunding Activity Countries 6.5 The Role of Productivity and Basic Requirements 6.6 Discussion and Connection of the Results 6.7 Summary and Critical Reflection 7. Summary and Implications 7.1 Executive Summary 7.2 Theoretical Implications 7.3 Implications for Policymakers 7.4 Implications for African Entrepreneurs 7.5 Implications for Other Stakeholders 7.6 Limitations and Avenues for Future Research 7.7 Concluding Remarks References Appendices

En Perú, en estos últimos 5 años, se ha intensificado cada vez más las compras online. A pesar de que hubo un efecto tardío en el uso del ecommerce, distintas empresas ya tienen operando sus tiendas online (Sánchez, 2018). Parte de dicha aceleración, según Ipsos (2020), también se debe a la pandemia del Covid-19 en el país. Asimismo, el uso masivo de distintas redes sociales como Facebook, Instagram y Tik Tok permitieron que también los emprendedores locales puedan promocionar sus productos o servicios (Liu, 2019). Esta investigación tiene como objetivo principal analizar la experiencia de los consumidores millennials en las tiendas ecommerce de los emprendimientos locales de Lima Metropolitana en los últimos 5 años. Para ello se centrará en los emprendimientos Raíces y Renace del rubro ecológico. Se hará un análisis de contenido de sus perfiles de Instagram y Facebook con el objetivo específico de describir los emprendimientos digitales. Además, se realizarán entrevistas a sus consumidores con el objetivo específico de analizar el comportamiento de compra de los millennials en estas ecommerce. / In Peru, in the last 5 years, online shopping has increasingly intensified. Although there was a late effect in the use of ecommerce, different companies already have their online stores operating (Sanchez, 2018). Part of such acceleration, according to Ipsos (2020), is also due to the Covid-19 pandemic in the country. Also, the massive use of different social networks such as Facebook, Instagram and Tik Tok allowed also local entrepreneurs to promote their products or services (Liu, 2019). The main objective of this research is to analyze the experience of millennial consumers in ecommerce stores of local entrepreneurs in Metropolitan Lima in the last 5 years. For this purpose, it will focus on the Raíces and Renace ventures of the ecological category. A content analysis of their Instagram and Facebook profiles will be made with the specific objective of describing the digital ventures. In addition, interviews will be conducted with their consumers with the specific objective of analyzing the buying behavior of millennials in these ecommerce. / Trabajo de investigación

La pandemia del COVID 19 que empezó en marzo del 2020 en nuestro país generó el cierre de varias empresas y la posterior crisis económica. Sin embargo, pese a ello, nuevos emprendimientos se formaron durante ese tiempo y otros negocios cambiaron de rubro adaptándose así a la coyuntura y a los nuevos hábitos de compra de los consumidores. Múltiples empresas que no tenían como herramienta a las redes sociales, se vieron obligadas a implementar plataformas digitales para la exposición de sus productos o servicios. Por ello, diversas empresas se vieron obligadas a realizar estrategias que generen confianza a los consumidores ya que para estos no contaban con la posibilidad de visitar una tienda física por lo tanto eran conscientes de que el vínculo de confianza era clave para generar un interés en su marca y posteriormente lograr la compra, plasmando en el documento, las acciones que funcionan en estos tiempos inciertos. Por lo tanto, el presente trabajo busca las acciones de social media marketing, como interacción, tendencia y riesgo percibido, que construyen confianza en los nuevos emprendimientos. / The COVID 19 pandemic that began in March 2020 in our country led to the closure of several companies and the subsequent economic crisis. However, despite this, new ventures were formed during that time and other businesses changed their category, thus adapting to the situation and to the new purchasing habits of consumers. Multiple companies that did not have social networks as a tool were forced to implement digital platforms for the exposure of their products or services. For this reason, various companies were forced to carry out strategies that generate confidence in consumers since for them they did not have the possibility of visiting a physical store, therefore they were aware that the bond of trust was key to generate an interest in their brand and subsequently achieve the purchase, reflecting in the document, the actions that work in these uncertain times. Therefore, the present work looks for social media marketing actions, such as interaction, trend and perceived risk, which build trust in new ventures. / Trabajo de investigación

The recently coined term, Impact Startup, and its rising popularity on the global scene proves its importance as a subject of research. As startups are considered key players in changing the status quo and breaking barriers, they are considered crucial in overcoming some of the most evident issues of today. Utilizing an approach based on previously validated content analysis methods, this study aims to shine a light on the relatively unexplored topic by identifying the key qualities of Impact Startups. Looking into how these organizations communicate about themselves and comparing the findings with the compiled theoretical definition of Impact Startups, we can evaluate the alignment of theory with practice and gain a deeper understanding of the trending phenomenon. Finding that Impact Startups should effectively change the social and/or environmental status quo we conclude that they should be categorized as, Social Impact Startups, Environmental Startups, and Total Impact Startups. Further results of this investigation highlight the importance of distinguishing between Mature Impact Organizations and Impact Startups. This study contributes extensively to the understanding we have of Impact Startups and lays the foundation for further research and establishing legitimate qualifications of Impact.

This thesis is about publicly funded support of technology-based ventures. These ventures are regarded as solutions to create growth and societal development. They are commonly originated from universities, institutes or other firms and their products or techniques are commonly new or at least different from the ordinary. They are therefore considered as being of higher risk than generic new firms, but if successful they may also give higher returns. Hence, a range of efforts has been undertaken to support them. However, concerning the issue of public support, gaps of research have been exposed. This thesis aims to give some answers on the question of what characterizes the public support given to technology-based ventures in Sweden. It elucidates two types of public support, the “configuration-type” and the “process-type” The first is studied by using statistical databases built upon the conditional loans and the innovation subsidies that were offered by Sweden Innovation Centre during the years 1994-2003. The second type concerns incubator support, and investigates how best practise incubators can be evaluated. Among the results, it can be mentioned that different support actors use different selection criteria depending on their goals, however the credibility of the applying venture is crucial for approval. Furthermore, a framework for best practice evaluation is developed. / <p>Report code: LiU-Tek-Lic 2005:72</p>

Los Joint Venture son contratos asociativos utilizados a nivel mundial, con la finalidad que las partes (ya sean personas naturales o jurídicas) que lo conforman cooperen entre ellas. No obstante al uso casi global de estos contratos, en la actualidad aún existen algunas diferencias de trato jurídico y practico que podemos advertir, tal como se encuentra establecido en normativas norteamericanas, españolas, alemanas, peruanas, entre otros; sin embargo, este problema, no parte únicamente con la regulación de este tipo de contratos, sino que parte por el reconocimiento general de los contratos asociativos, o llamados también “partnership”, ya que en algunos países como es el caso de España, Estados Unidos, y Alemania, permiten constituir personas jurídicas con estos instrumentos societarios, a diferencias de nuestra regulación que, de acuerdo a nuestra ley societaria, se encuentra prohibida esta posibilidad. Justamente esta situación jurídica asimétrica que tenemos frente a lo que en mercado se acepta, es la justificación de este trabajo, toda vez que de aquí parte problemas de índole económico, internacional y sobre todo nacional, ya que la participación de estas agrupaciones de empresas es sumamente importante tenerla en cuenta para nuestra económica y evolución como país, al igual como en otros países se encuentra reconocido, con lo cual, mi principal objetivo determinar si con la inclusión de los Joint Venture en nuestra Ley General de Sociedades, se podría cambiar la perspectiva de los contratos asociativos, facilitando la funcionalidad empresarial de las agrupaciones conformadas por estos contratos. En el desarrollo de la presente investigación se demuestra cómo es que la practica comercial y jurídica de otras materias, han tratado a estas agrupaciones como personas jurídicas, razón por la cual, se llegó a la conclusión que, lo ideal sería incluir la posibilidad que, a través de estos contratos asociativos podamos constituir personas jurídicas nuevas. / Trabajo de investigación

[pt] O propósito desta pesquisa é investigar um tipo emergente de INV, a Borderless Firm, ao apresentar um estudo de caso sobre uma jovem e pequena empresa brasileira que se enquadra nas características que distinguem este tipo de empresa. Analisa-se detalhadamente como ocorreu o processo de estabelecimento de cada uma das atividades coordenadas internacionalmente, buscando entender as motivações da empresa e a relevância das redes de relacionamento nessa trajetória. Embora a pesquisa seja baseada em um estudo de caso único devido às limitações atuais de se identificar empreendimentos que apresentem a configuração da Borderless Firm, acredita-se que o caso da Zee.dog contribui para corroborar certos aspectos da incipiente teoria, como a diversidade de motivos que influenciam as decisões de internacionalização dessas empresas, a alternância entre as lógicas de previsão e controle que parecem guiar esse processo e a importância que as redes de relacionamento assumem não apenas para o reconhecimento de novas oportunidades, mas para diminuir barreiras ao aprofundamento da internacionalização, e como mecanismo alternativo de governança para evitar o oportunismo. Além disso, o estudo indica que a configuração global pautada na coordenação de atividades geograficamente dispersas e baseada em relacionamentos complexos com diversos atores internacionais pode vir a ser fonte de vantagens competitivas sustentáveis, que são necessárias para sobreviver no mercado global. / [en] The purpose of this research is to inquire about an emergent type of International New Venture, the Borderless Firm, by presenting a case study on a small and young Brazilian company that can be framed in this type of firm main characteristics. The analysis details how was the process of establishing internationally coordinated activities, also trying to understand the company s motivations and the relevance of international networks to this trajectory. Although the research is based on a single case study due to current limitations of identifying companies that present the Borderless Firm configuration, it is believed that the Zee.dog case contributes to corroborate certain aspects of the incipient theory, such as the diversity of reasons that influence the companies internationalization decisions, the alternance between the logics of causation and effectuation that seems to guide this process and the importance that networks relationships assume not only to the acknowledgement of new opportunities, but to diminish the barriers of broadening internationalization and as an alternative governance mechanism to avoid opportunism. Furthermore, this study indicates that the global configuration grounded by the coordination of geographically dispersed activities and based on complex relationships with multiple international actors may become source of sustainable competitive advantages that are required to survival in the global market.