This thesis charts the increasing volume and changing nature of tourism in Europe. It was allowed by the liberalization of air travel market (the emergence of Low-Cost Carriers), and by the emergence of sharing economy (Airbnb). Followed by these changes a new segment of tourists, who were described as independent travelers, emerged. The thesis focuses on the interaction of those three factors and their effect on urban space - thus on its socio- geographic, socio-economic and socio-cultural fabric. Because of Low-Cost Carriers, tourists and travelers are concentrated in several European cities - those which were able to accommodate its environment for these airlines. In the cities, tourism spread from the concentric zones of the city center to the zones of the inner city, where a new tourist industry was adjusted for independent travelers. This touristification deepens the process of gentrification and spatial inequalities. Because of Airbnb, the limited hotel supply in the city center was surpassed, and the accommodation sector was integrated into residential fabric of the inner city. Those touristified spaces of the city become socio-culturally heterogenic. However, with increasing costs of living in the inner city, this space is more and more socio- economically homogenous. Consequently,...

Partant de la prémisse du droit à la ville, de l’(in)justice spatiale et du contexte de l’inégalité des genres, le problème de l’accès des jeunes femmes aux ressources de la ville est devenu évident. En particulier, elle se traduit par une mobilité limitée et des restrictions à la capacité des jeunes femmes d’occuper et de participer à l’espace public qui est essentiel à leur socialisation, à leur bien-être et à leur développement. Face à un contexte urbain défavorable à la réalisation de leur droit à la ville, cette recherche questionne l’expérience dans l’espace public des jeunes filles issues de milieux défavorisés, en particulier lorsqu’elles se déplacent. La recherche se concentre sur l’expérience des jeunes femmes vivant dans le quartier périphérique et marginalisé de Miramar situé à Zapopan, une municipalité de la région métropolitaine de Guadalajara à Jalisco, au Mexique. La recherche a été menée à partir d’un cadre méthodologique féministe, avec une approche qualitative et participative, incluant des méthodes de collecte de données basées sur la recherche-action et des processus d’éducation populaire avec 10 jeunes femmes âgées 15 à 19 ans. De façon complémentaire, des informations ont été recueillies par le biais de documents et d’entretiens semi-dirigés avec 12 acteurs clés de l’environnement urbain local afin d’approfondir la compréhension de la situation des jeunes femmes et des possibilités d’intervention. Deux résultats méritent d’être soulignés. Tout d’abord, nous avons constaté que les jeunes femmes vivent une double exclusion dans l’espace public et voient par conséquent leur droit à la ville non réalisé. La première exclusion est liée à l’inégalité entre les genres et à la violence qu’elles subissent en tant que jeunes femmes. La seconde est associée au paradigme centré sur l’adulte et à la perception sociale selon laquelle elles sont des êtres vulnérables. Deuxièmement, nous montrons que les processus participatifs dans la planification urbaine sont utiles à la fois pour la production de connaissances et pour la réalisation du droit à la ville. / Starting from the premise of the right to the city, of spatial (in)justice and the context of gender inequality, the problem of access to the city’s resources by young women has become evident. In particular, it translates into limited mobility and restrictions on youths’ ability to occupy and participate in the public space, which is essential for their socialization, well-being and development. Faced with an unfavorable urban context to the fulfillment of their right to the city, this research questions the experience in public spaces of young women from disadvantaged environments, particularly through their mobilities. The research focuses on the experience of young women living in the peripheral and marginalized Miramar neighborhood, situated in Zapopan, a municipality in the Metropolitan Area of Guadalajara in Jalisco, Mexico. The research was carried out from a feminist methodological framework, with a qualitative and participatory approach, including data collection methods based on action-research and popular education processes with 10 young women 15 and 19 years old. In addition, complementary information was collected through documentation and semi-directed interviews with 12 key actors in the local urban environment in order to deepen understanding of the situation of young women and the possibilities for intervention. Two results should be highlighted. Firstly, we observed that young women live a double exclusion in the public space and consequently see their right to the city unfulfilled. The first exclusion is related to gender inequality and the violence they experience as young women. The second is associated with the adult-centric paradigm and the social perception that young women are vulnerable beings. Secondly, we show that participatory processes in urban planning are useful both for the production of knowledge and for the fulfillment of the right to the city. / Partiendo de la premisa del derecho a la ciudad, de la (in)justicia espacial y del contexto de desigualdad de género, se ha puesto en evidencia el problema del acceso a los recursos de la ciudad por parte de las mujeres jóvenes. En particular, se traduce en una movilidad limitada y en restricciones con respecto a la capacidad de las jóvenes para ocupar y participar en el espacio público que es esencial para su socialización, su bienestar y su desarrollo. Frente a un contexto urbano desfavorable al cumplimiento de su derecho a la ciudad, la presente investigación se cuestiona sobre la experiencia en los espacios públicos de las jóvenes de entornos desfavorecidos, particularmente cuando se desplazan. La investigación se centra en la experiencia de mujeres jóvenes residentes de la colonia periférica y marginada Miramar ubicado en Zapopan, un municipio del Área Metropolitana de Guadalajara en Jalisco, México. La investigación se realizó desde un marco metodológico feminista, con un enfoque cualitativo y participativo, que incluye métodos de recopilación de datos fundamentados en procesos de investigación-acción y de educación popular con 10 jóvenes de entre 15 y 19 años de edad. De manera complementaria, se recabó información mediante documentación y entrevistas semi-dirigidas con 12 actores clave del ámbito urbano local para profundizar la comprensión de la situación de las jóvenes y de las posibilidades de intervención. Dos resultados deben destacarse. En primer lugar, observamos que las jóvenes viven una doble exclusión en el espacio público y por consecuencia ven su derecho a la ciudad incumplido. La primera exclusión está relacionada con la desigualdad de género y las violencias que viven por ser mujeres jóvenes; la segunda está asociada con el paradigma adulto-céntrico y la percepción social de que las jóvenes son seres vulnerables. En segundo lugar, evidenciamos que los procesos participativos en la planeación urbana son útiles tanto para la producción del conocimiento como para el cumplimiento del derecho a la ciudad.

The purpose of this essay has been to attain an in-depth understanding of communicative power struggles within the urban space from a critical urban perspective based on the Right to the City. The project that constitutes the case study for this analysis has been the BID Malmö’s utility box project. The starting point has been that Malmö’s utility boxes function as a communicative medium, an urban public bulletin board, a common whose usage is constrained by projects implemented by entities like BID Malmö. The study is grounded in a theoretical understanding of the city as a social product, marked by power struggles linked to the competitive, postindustrial city. Critical urban theory has been combined with a discourse-oriented ctitical perspective focusing on power, ideology and hegemony, forming the basis for the conducted critical discourse analysis. The findings of the study reveal that art and culture are assigned a central role in the postindustrial city, tasked with transforming urban space. The transformation from a dirty or unsafe current to a safe and attractive futurecity. At the same time, culture is assigned a commitment to fostering participation, even as the same art is used to enclose and restrict certain parts of the public space. / Syftet med denna uppsats har varit att nå fördjupad kunskap om det urbana rummets kommunikativa maktkamper utifrån ett kritiskt urbant perspektiv om Rätten till staden. BID Malmös elskåpsprojekt har utgjort undersökningens fallstudie. Utgångspunkten har varit att Malmös elskåp är ett kommunikativt medium, en urban offentlig anslagstavla, en allmänning. Vars användning begränsas genom olika projekt som genomförs av bland andra BID Malmö. Undersökningen förankras i en teoretisk förståelse för staden som socialt producerad och präglad av maktkamper kopplade till den konkurrerande, postindustriella staden. Den kritiska urbana teorin har kombinerats med ett diskursteoretiskt perspektiv med fokus på makt, ideologi och hegemoni. Vilka tillsammans har lagt grunden för den genomförda kritiska diskursanalysen. Resultatet av undersökningen visar att konsten och kulturen tillskrivs en central roll i den postindustriella staden, vars uppgift är att omskapa rummet till något annat än vad det är idag med fokus på trygghet och stadens attraktivitet. Kulturen tillskrivs ett åtagande att skapa delaktighet, samtidigt som samma kultur används för att inhägna och stänga ner delar av det offentliga rummet och minska rätten till staden.

La ville a été construite de façon genrée, créant des disparités quant à l’accès à ses aménagements et ses espaces publics. Ces inégalités entrainent souvent un sentiment d’insécurité chez les femmes lorsqu’elles doivent parcourir ces lieux au quotidien. Ainsi, celles-ci ont tendance à occuper la ville différemment des hommes, en se limitant dans leurs déplacements et en utilisant de multiples stratégies d’évitements. Les marches exploratoires tentent de pallier ce sentiment d’insécurité perçu et parfois exprimé, mais malheureusement souvent ignoré par les personnes en position de pouvoir. Elles ont comme intention d’explorer en petit groupe un espace donné afin d’analyser ses points forts et faibles, donc d’en faire ressortir des caractéristiques spécifiques à ce lieu dans un objectif d’appropriation futur de l’endroit. L’objectif de ce mémoire est de comprendre comment les marches exploratoires participent à l’inclusion et la (ré)appropriation des femmes dans les espaces publics urbains. À la suite des entrevues, trois types de marches exploratoires ayant chacune ses propres caractéristiques ont été observées. Les résultats obtenus démontrent que la marche exploratoire devient un outil d’un processus plus large qui peut mener à l’empowerment, lorsque les participantes font partie intégrante de cette démarche. En ce sens, les activités autour de la marche permettent aux participantes d’obtenir une voix et une meilleure compréhension des enjeux urbains. / The city has been constructed along gendered lines, resulting in disparities in access to its amenities and public spaces. These inequalities often lead to a feeling of insecurity among women as they navigate these places in their daily lives. Consequently, women tend to occupy the city differently from men, restricting their movements and employing various avoidance strategies. Women’s Safety Audits aim to address this perceived and sometimes expressed sense of insecurity, which, unfortunately, is often disregarded by individuals in positions of power. They intend to explore a specific area in a small group to analyze its strengths and weaknesses, thereby highlighting its characteristics, with the idea of appropriation in the future. This thesis aims to understand how the Women's Safety Audit contributes to the inclusion and (re)appropriation of women in urban public spaces. Following interviews, three types of safety audits, each with its own characteristics, were observed. The results demonstrate that the Women's Safety Audit become a tool within a broader process that can lead to empowerment when participants are an integral part of this endeavor. In this sense, the activities surrounding the walk enable participants to gain a voice and a better understanding of urban issues.

[pt] A proposta da tese é compreender, de maneira crítica, como a questão de gênero e o sujeito mulher são construídos discursivamente na agenda urbana internacional a partir da Conferência Habitat II (1996). Investigam-se as condições de emergência de enunciados sobre as mulheres, o papel que elas exercem na cidade e de orientações para promover a sua inclusão nas políticas urbanas dos organismos internacionais. A partir da análise documental de materiais selecionados do Programa das Nações Unidas para Assentamentos Humanos (ONU-Habitat) e do Banco Mundial, observou-se a regularidade, a repetição e a circulação determinados enunciados, através de formas variadas, que produzem um reforço mútuo de certo enquadramento da gestão urbana e da igualdade de gênero que dá suporte ao modelo de desenvolvimento hegemônico. O objetivo dessa tese é perseguir os efeitos desse discurso na elaboração de noções sobre o direito à cidade a partir da perspectiva de gênero. / [en] The thesis proposal is to critically understand how the issue of gender and the subject woman are constructed discursively in the international urban agenda since the Habitat II Conference (1996). It investigates the emergence of statements about women, their role in the city and orientations to promote their inclusion in the urban policies of international organizations. Based on a documentary analysis of selected materials from the United Nations Human Settlements Program (UN-HABITAT) and the World Bank, it was observed the regularity, repetition and circulation of determined statements, in various forms, that produces a mutual reinforcement of a certain framework of urban management and gender equality that supports the hegemonic development model. The purpose of this thesis is to pursue the effects of this discourse in the elaboration of notions on the right to the city from a gender perspective. / [fr] Cette thèse se propose de comprendre de manière critique comment la question du genre et le sujet femme sont construits discursivement dans l agenda urbain international depuis la Conférence Habitat II (1996). Nous examinons l émergence d énoncés sur les femmes, leur rôle dans la ville et d orientations pour promouvoir leur inclusion dans les politiques urbaines des organisations internationales. Sur la base d une analyse documentaire de matériaux choisis issus du Programme des Nations Unies pour les établissements humains (ONU-HABITAT) et de la Banque mondiale, il a été observé la régularité, la répétition et la circulation d énoncés déterminés, sous différentes formes, produisant un renforcement mutuel d un certain encadrement de la gestion urbaine et de l égalité des sexes qui soutient le modèle de développement hégémonique. Le but de cette thèse est de poursuivre les effets de ce discours dans l élaboration des notions sur le droit à la ville dans une perspective de genre.

[pt] A partir de uma perspectiva crítica a respeito da relativização das demandas femininas, apontamos neste estudo para a necessidade de uma epistemologia feminista decolonial visando o reconhecimento das narrativas resistentes de mulheres faveladas, como protagonistas da luta política pelo direito à cidade. Nesse sentido, a presente dissertação tem como objetivo ampliar o debate sobre a participação das mulheres na luta contra a remoção no Rio de Janeiro. Pensamos a cidade como um espaço de disputas, e a busca por mudança dos lugares convencionados como normativos, surge como um desafio, na medida em que a política urbana tem sido construída historicamente, segregada e desigual. O Rio de Janeiro se constitui como lócus central para nossa discussão, pois tem concentrado de forma expressiva nos últimos anos, violações de direitos, em especial para os moradores das favelas cariocas. Atualmente, com a eleição do Marcelo Crivella (PRB) as remoções seguem fazendo parte de um projeto bem delineado de poder. A política urbana da nova gestão municipal concilia os mesmos mecanismos de planejamento urbano consolidado durante a preparação da cidade para os megaeventos. O ciclo dos Jogos terminou com algumas vitórias das favelas que resistiram à remoção, mas novos desafios são imediatamente colocados. Desses embates cotidianos, é que a resistência vem se tornando caminho comum para as favelas cariocas. Portanto, a luta das mulheres articuladas no Conselho Popular, como protagonistas, revela as atuais nuances da luta ampla pelo direito à cidade, e a urgência do controle social das políticas urbanas. / [en] From a critical perspective regarding the relativization of the feminine demands, we pointed out in this study the need for a decolonial feminist epistemology aiming at the recognition of the resistant narratives of women from favelas (faveladas), as protagonists of the political struggle for the right to the city. In this sense, the present dissertation aims o broaden the debate about the participation of women in the fight against the removal of their house in Rio de Janeiro. We think of the city as a space of disputes, and the search for a change in the places that are conventionally considered as normative, arises as a challenge, owing to the urban politics has been historically constructed in segregated and unequal way. Rio de Janeiro is the central place for our discussion, since it has concentrated expressively in recent years, violations of rights, especially for the residents of the favelas. Currently, with the election of Marcelo Crivella (PRB) the removals continue to be part of a well-delineated project of power. The urban policy of the new municipal management reconciles the same mechanisms of consolidated urban planning during the preparation of the city for the mega-events. The Games cycle ended with a few favelas victories that resisted the removal, but new challenges are immediately posed. From these daily conflicts, it is that resistance has become a common path for the favelas of Rio. Therefore, the struggle of women articulated in the People s Council, as protagonists, reveals the current nuances of the broad struggle for the right to the city, and the urgency of social control of urban policies.

[pt] Esta tese estuda a construção do lugar da criança e do adolescente enquanto sujeitos de direitos a partir do Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente (ECA). Como objetivo inicial, estabelece uma leitura dos direitos da criança enquanto um processo complexo de mudanças e práticas na construção de uma nova cultura. O ECA estabeleceu dispositivos institucionais como leis, programas e órgãos que configuraram um circuito institucional gerando novas práticas no cotidiano. Mas, ao mesmo tempo em que funciona como uma transformação jurídico-institucional avançada, o ECA dispara uma ação intempestiva e abrupta no cotidiano da sociedade brasileira. Atores foram colocados em diálogo para a validação desse direito, nesse sentido, uma nova perspectiva de direitos trouxe consigo a valorização do ator e sua capacidade de ação em rede dentro de uma nova lógica de gestão pública. Os efeitos reais das inovações do ECA podem ser observados à luz da presença da criança no espaço público, geralmente, lugares em que são invisíveis, e onde o seu direito à cidade tende a desaparecer. Através de pesquisa empírica o estudo evidenciará trajetórias de crianças e adolescentes da Favela da Rocinha, no Rio de Janeiro, com passagem pelo Conselho tutelar, por meio de tramas e relatos dos casos. Este estudo inclui também, de forma complementar, uma análise da relação deste Conselho com algumas agências que compõem a Rede de proteção de crianças e adolescentes - Ministério Público, Centro de Referência de Assistência Social (CRAS) e Escola - de forma a entender como cada uma dessas agências, em seu modo de funcionamento, revela a fragilidade a que estão expostas crianças e adolescentes de origem popular. / [en] This thesis studies the construction of the place of the child and the adolescent as subjects of rights from the Statute of the Child and the Adolescent. As an initial goal, it establishes a reading of children s rights as a complex process of changes and practices in the construction of a new culture. The ECA established institutional arrangements such as laws, programs and bodies that set up an institutional circuit generating new practices in everyday life. But, at the same time that it functions as an advanced juridical-institutional transformation, the ECA triggers an abrupt and untimely action in the daily life of Brazilian society. Actors were put in dialogue for the validation of this right, in this sense, a new perspective of rights brought with it the actor s valorization and his ability to act in a network within a new logic of public management. The real effects of ECA innovations can be seen in the light of the child s presence in the public space, usually where they are invisible, and where their right to the city tends to disappear. Through empirical research, the study will show trajectories of children and adolescents from the Favela de Rocinha, in Rio de Janeiro, with passage through the Guardianship Council, through plots and case reports. This study also includes, in a complementary way, an analysis of the relationship of this Council with some agencies that make up the Network for the Protection of Children and Adolescents - Public Prosecutor s Office, Social Assistance Reference Center and School - in order to understand how each one of these agencies, in its way of functioning, reveals the fragility to which children and adolescents of popular origin are exposed.

This thesis examines the proposed Österskans development in Halmstad, Sweden from the approach of critical urbanism. With a steady increase of population growth for the past decades and despite the income level of the municipality's population being above the national average - the socio-economic segregation in Halmstad is prevalent. The planned development of the Österskans area, a former node of public transport located in the city centre, would see the space refitted to house a large-scale skyscraper complex containing a hotel, an urban market, a restaurant and a rooftop bar. The development and imposed semi-privatisation of the current public place have sparked debate, and a referendum on the matter will take place at the time of the national elections in september of 2022. This study employs the method of critical discourse analysis to investigate how aspects of convivial urbanism embeds the discourse on public space in Halmstad, how the development of public places can be understood through the discourse on shared spatial qualities in the case of Österskans and what implications such qualities could have on segregation. The theoretical framework consists of theory of space and place, critical urban theory on the right to the city, uneven geographical development, the human body as accumulation strategy as well as theory on conviviality. By the examination of 13 texts as qualitatively selected representatives of the discourse, the analysis centered around on how narratives, intertextual relations and structures can be understood. In the analysis, matters of how the narratives on conviviality is positioned, how social sustainability is addressed and avoided, assumptions of who constitutes the public, market value and attractiveness, the portrayal of diversity and inclusion versus the reality of it, the feasibility of achieving togetherness and the potential harmful implications of the development are all discussed. The study concludes that while claims of conviviality clearly do feature, the narratives of the discourse overlooks crucial factors of social sustainability and leaves blind spots of how to tangibly achieve inclusivity - along with the understanding of the inside experience of the consumer being prioritized and that it could negatively impact segregation by imposing an even further further socio-spatial divide.

Parque Científico y Tecnológico (PACYT, Science and Technology Park) is a large-scale R+D project that seems to be framed in a Smart City plan for Concepción, Chile, which the media has presented as “the Chilean Silicon Valley” (Araus, 2015; Tele13, 2019) and promises to bring not only research and development opportunities for the city but also thousands of direct and indirect jobs (Estudio Interdiseño, 2018; la Tercera, 2015) carried out by PACYT Corporation. Nonetheless, voices have raised to question the construction of the 91 hectares initiative, and some of them have even organized in citizen groups targeting the creation of the urban complex, which actively share information contesting the PACYT through social media, and coordinate activities to protest and spread the word. This is the study case to be analyzed in the present research, which aims to explore and understand, on the one hand, the reasons that have led to the organization of citizens contesting the PACYT project, and on the other hand, the way the project has been advertised and developed in relationship to the city's inhabitants. It intends to make a novel contribution to the field of Urban Studies, both in the areas of Critical Smart Urbanism and Postcolonial Studies, which in this case collide in Latin America, part of the Global South, while opening a discussion around the topic of citizens contesting urban developments with a Smart City background, where few incursions have been made and more specifically in the Latin American context, where the Smart City seems to have a particular interpretation. With that in mind, the current research tries to dig into an under-studied territory, and in doing so, it plans to bring to the table the relevance of studying the approach and way of developing Smart Cities’ ideas in Latin American, and to put focus on what city’s inhabitants have to say about those developments and what their interests are, using the lenses of the right to the city and the understandings coming from urban social movements and conflicts. In that sense, the research outputs are to question the form in which Smart City projects are being implemented in Latin America and to find possible guidelines to incorporate the city’s inhabitants in the development of them elsewhere, with that in mind, future research can be supported by this investigation, which encourages further studies both in the described fields and territory. To do so, the current investigation explores and unwrap theories regarding the mentioned fields and focuses on analyzing the case making use of mixed methods research, by executing qualitative and quantitative methodological tools to reach relevant data that helps to answer the research inquiries. In that sense, the results show that it can be confirmed that the nature of the PACYT, i.e. its R+D purposes and origins linked to a Smart City plan to transform the city into smartness, does not play a relevant role in the development of the conflict that has emerged between the PACYT management, and the people opposed to its construction, but several aspects explain the urban social conflict and that will be explored in the present work. / <p><strong>Acknowledgment.</strong></p><p>First of all, I would like to thank all the interviewees that decided to share their thoughts in the present study, as well as to all the people that participated in the survey; without your contribution, it would have not been possible for me to reach my research goals and to count on with the rich material I have. On the other hand, I want to thank people from academia, such as my peers, who have given me advice and stamina, to my tutor, who has contributed with his wisdom, and to my mentor at university, who has kept me on track and provided me with valuable insights. I am grateful to these people for helping me with my willpower and effectiveness. Finally, I need to thank those surrounding me, like my family for supporting me from the distance, my partner for being here to contain and take care of me, and my dog for always being around me and spreading his love and joy.</p>

Originating from a disenfranchisement with the contemporary definition and realisation of Westernised architecture as a commodity and product, this thesis seeks to explore alternative examples of positive socio-spatial practice and agency. These alternative spatial practices and methodologies are drawn from participatory and grass-roots development agency in informal settlements and contexts of economic absence, most notably in the global South. This thesis explores whether such examples can be interpreted as practical realisations of key theoretical advocacies for positive social space that have emerged in the context of post-Second World-War capitalism. The principal methodological framework utilises two differing trajectories of spatial discourse. Firstly, Henri Lefebvre and Doreen Massey as formative protagonists of Western spatial critique, and secondly, John F. C. Turner and Nabeel Hamdi as key advocates of participatory development practice in informal settlements. These two research trajectories are notably separated by geographical, economic and political differentiations, as well as conventional disciplinary boundaries. However by undertaking a close textual reading of these discourses this thesis critically re-contextualises the socio-spatial methodologies of participatory development practice, observing multiple theoretical convergences and provocative commonalities. This research proposes that by critically comparing these previously unconnected disciplinary trajectories certain similarities, resonances and equivalences become apparent. These resonances reveal comparable critiques of choice, value, and identity which transcend the gap between such differing theoretical and practical engagements with space. Subsequently, these thematic resonances allow this research to critically engage with further appropriate surrounding discourses, including Marxist theory, orientalism, post- structural pluralism, development anthropology, post-colonial theory and subaltern theory. 5 In summary, this thesis explores aspects of Henri Lefebvre's and Doreen Massey's urban and spatial theory through a close textual reading of key texts from their respective discourses. This methodology provides a layered analysis of post-Marxist urban space, and an exploration of an explicit connection between Lefebvre and Massey in terms of the social production and multiplicity of space. Subsequently, this examination provides a theoretical framework from which to reinterpret and revalue the approaches to participatory development practice found in the writings and projects of John Turner and Nabeel Hamdi. The resulting comparative framework generates interconnected thematic trajectories of enquiry that facilitate the re-reading and critical reflection of Turner and Hamdi's development practices. Thus, selected Western spatial discourse acts as a critical lens through which to re-value the social, political and economical achievements of participatory development. Reciprocally, development practice methodologies are recognised as invaluable and provocative realisations of the socio-spatial qualities that Western spatial discourse has long advocated for, and yet have remained predominantly unrealised in the global North.