This master’s thesis project undertook investigation of whether the extant Damerau- Levenshtein edit distance measurement between two strings could be made more useful for detecting and adjusting misspellings in a search query. The idea was to use the knowledge that many users type their queries using the QWERTY keyboard layout, and weighting the edit distance in a manner that makes it cheaper to correct misspellings caused by confusion of nearer keys. Two different weighting approaches were tested, one with a linear spread from 2/9 to 2 depending on the keyboard distance, and the other had neighbors preferred over non-neighbors (either with half the cost or no cost at all). They were tested against an unweighted baseline as well as inverted versions of themselves (nearer keys more expensive to replace) against a dataset of 1,162,145 searches. No significant improvement in the retrieval of search results were observed when compared to the baseline. However, each of the weightings performed better than its corresponding inversion on a p < 0.05 significance level. This means that while the weighted edit distance did not outperform the baseline, the data still clearly points toward a correlation between the physical position of keys on the keyboard, and what spelling mistakes are made. / Detta examensarbete åtog sig att undersöka om det etablerade Damerau-Levenshtein-avståndet som mäter avståndet kan anpassas för att bättre hitta och korrigera stavningsfel i sökfrågor. Tanken var att använda det faktum att många användare skriver sina sökfrågor på ett tangentbord med QWERTY-layout, och att vikta ändrings- avståndet så att det blir billigare att korrigera stavfel orsakade av hopblandning av två knappar som är närmare varandra. Två olika viktningar testades, en hade vikterna utspridda linjärt mellan 2/9 och 2, och den andra föredrog grannar över icke-grannar (antingen halva kostnaden eller ingen alls). De testades mot ett oviktat referensavstånd samt inversen av sig själva (så att närmare knappar blev dyrare att byta ut) mot ett dataset bestående av 1 162 145 sökningar. Ingen signifikant förbättring uppmättes gentemot referensen. Däremot presterade var och en av viktningarna bättre än sin inverterade motpart på konfidensnivå p < 0,05. Det innebär att trots att de viktade distansavstånden inte presterade bättre än referensen så pekar datan tydligt mot en korrelation mellan den fysiska positioneringen av knapparna på tangentbordet och vilka stavningsmisstag som begås.

In 3 experiments, I investigated the role of verbal behavior development in reading and spelling sight words. I evaluated effects of different interventions for reading and spelling sight words and establishing the transformation of stimulus function across word reading and spelling. In Experiment 1, I evaluated the effects of 3 interventions on the acquisition and maintenance of sight words: single topography exemplar instruction (STEI), multiple topography exemplar instruction (MTEI), and MTEI with dictation (MTEI-D). The STEI intervention consisted of reading individual sight words. The MTEI intervention consisted of reading, pointing-to, and intraverbally responding to sight words. The MTEI-D intervention consisted of reading, pointing-to, and writing dictation responses for sight words. I measured the acquisition and maintenance of sight words through 5 response topographies: textual, intraverbal, point-to, sentence generalization, and dictation responses. The results indicated that participants acquired and maintained textual, intraverbal, point-to, and sentence generalization responses across all 3 conditions but only acquired dictation responses in the MTEI-D condition. The results from the MTEI-D condition suggest that the rotation of textual and dictation responses may have established transformation of stimulus function (TSF) across word reading and spelling. Experiment 2 evaluated the effects of multiple exemplar instruction (MEI) across word reading and spelling on establishing TSF across word reading and spelling. The results from Experiment 2 indicated that the MEI intervention was not effective in establishing TSF across word reading and spelling for all participants. However, the results highlighted the need to further evaluate the role of other cusps such as, incidental bidirectional naming (Inc-BiN) and conditioned seeing, in strengthening the stimulus control for establishing TSF across word reading and spelling. In Experiment 3, I evaluated the effects of a MEI intervention across delayed textual and delayed transcription responses on establishing TSF across word reading and spelling. The results demonstrated that MEI across delayed textual and transcription responses was effective in establishing TSF across word reading and spelling for all participants. The results also demonstrated that all participants increased in their correct responding for conditioned seeing probes. Keywords: sight words, transformation of stimulus function, incidental bidirectional naming, conditioned seeing, word reading, spelling

The purpose of this study was to gain an in-depth understanding of student, parent and educator perceptions of the effectiveness of the Barton Reading Spelling System. Two research questions were addressed in the study: (a) what are the students’, parents’, and educators’ perceptions of BRSS? and (b) what issues influence the effectiveness of the BRSS? Findings for the first research question included (a) positive effect on spelling, (b) positive effect on decoding and print vocabulary, (c) positive effect on reading fluency, (d) positive effect on writing fluency, (e) positive effect on students’ confidence, (f) positive effect on students’ motivations to read and write, (g) positive influence on reading comprehension if comprehension problems due to decoding deficits, and (h) no effect on oral vocabulary. Findings for the second research question included (a) the methodology, layout and training of the BRSS had a positive influence; (b) tutors’ level of experience, consistency of tutoring, level of instruction, communication with others, value in the program, and relationship with the tutee had an influence; (c) student characteristics of ADHD had a negative influence; and (d) lack of tutor support, education to teachers and parents and application of skills outside of BRSS tutoring had a negative influence. Implications of the study included (a) effectiveness of the BRSS with remediating decoding issues and reading comprehension issues directly related to decoding problems; (b) need for more teacher education on remediating basic reading problems; (c) the careful selection and support of tutors for the BRSS; (d) need for communication and collaboration among all teachers, tutors, and parents of students on BRSS; and (e) need for additional studies on the BRSS in larger samples sizes and in different settings.

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This study investigates orthographic skills in students with learning disabilities (LD), English Language Learning (ELL) students and their typical-achieving, native-English speaking (TYP) peers to help in the differentiation of these groups, and ultimately improve LD assessment for linguistically diverse students. A repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted to compare the effect of Group Type (LD, TYP, ELL) on the orthographic skills of 108 children as measured by the Words Their Way Primary Spelling Inventory on three administrations over the course of a school year. There were statistically significant differences between groups with medium and large effect sizes in all spelling inventory measures: Feature Points, Words Spelled Correct and Spelling Inventory Stage scores. In each grade and administration, the students in the LD group consistently had the lowest means and students in the TYP group had the highest means. On the Words Spelled Correct measure, there was a triple interaction with a medium to large effect size between the three groups by grade and over time. This interaction showed that in Kindergarten, both ELL students and students with LD score significantly lower than the TYP group. ELL students made substantial progress and by spring of first grade, they had similar scores to those of the TYP group. The LD group continued to have significantly lower scores than both other groups in first and second grades. A comparison of spring stage scores indicated significant differences between the ELL group and the TYP group in the number of students that were on or above grade level. There was also a significant difference between the number of students with spring spelling stages on or above grade level in the LD and the TYP group. However, there was not an equivalent difference between the LD and ELL groups. An analysis of student progress over the course of the school year found the rates of improvement in all three groups to be comparable, though the group means are consistently ranked with the LD group underperforming the ELL group and TYP group (LD <ELL <TYP). These important variations in how diverse students perform by grade and over time can inform both the instruction and assessment of students. In doing so, more well-designed pre-referral interventions can begin to correct problems of disproportionality of linguistically diverse students in special education. / Special Education

published_or_final_version / Education / Master / Master of Education

O presente estudo, de caráter experimental, buscou relacionar duas grandes áreas - Fonoaudiologia e Educação - tendo como tema principal a promoção de linguagem oral e escrita no contexto escolar. Sucessivos estudos apontam que um índice muito grande de alunos brasileiros chegam à 4ª série sem saber ler e escrever ou com níveis muito baixos de aquisição das habilidades de leitura e escrita exigidas para este grau de escolarização. Diante disso, esta pesquisa teve por objetivos: avaliar e categorizar os níveis de linguagem escrita dos alunos de 4ª série do Ensino Fundamental e estudar e avaliar, por meio de uma pesquisa-ação, os benefícios de uma proposta de práticas reflexivas de linguagem para crianças com aprendizagem adequada para a série em questão, para as que apresentavam um distúrbio de leitura e escrita já instalado e para aquelas com risco para esta alteração. Para a amostra deste estudo foram selecionados 58 alunos de duas turmas da 4ª série de uma mesma escola. Elaborou-se um Programa de Práticas Reflexivas de Linguagem (PPRL), composto de quatorze encontros, em que a pesquisadora aplicou diferentes atividades lingüísticas coletivas para a amostra selecionada. Antes e após a execução do Programa, os alunos foram submetidos a uma avaliação individual com o objetivo de caracterizar o nível de conhecimento que cada um tinha em relação à linguagem oral e escrita. As professoras de ambas as classes também fizeram uma avaliação de cada aluno, por meio de um questionário informativo, avalizaram o conjunto de atividades antes de sua aplicação e estiveram presentes durante toda a execução do trabalho na escola. Após a coleta de dados, optou se por comparar o desempenho dos alunos no âmbito da linguagem escrita, pré e pós Programa, tanto qualitativa quanto quantitativamente. Quantitativamente, observou-se uma diminuição estatisticamente significante da quantidade total de erros ortográficos, bem como uma evolução na produção textual, principalmente quanto aos aspectos de coesão, inferência e contextualidade. Qualitativamente, constatou-se que o PPRL mostrou-se efetivo, ao melhorar o conhecimento geral que os alunos tinham em relação ao ato de escrever, principalmente nos aspectos ortográfico e textual. Conclui-se que as atividades de promoção de linguagem realizadas neste estudo constituem-se em agentes importantes na inclusão dos alunos no contexto de sala de aula, inclusive daqueles que apresentam dificuldades relevantes no processo de aquisição e desenvolvimento de linguagem escrita. / The present study of experimental nature, looked to relate two large areas - Speech Pathology and Education - having as it\'s main theme, the promotion of oral and written language in the school context. Successive studies show that a very large number of brazilian students come to 4th grade without knowing how to read or write, or with very low acquisition levels of reading and writing abilities required at this grade level. Before this, the object of this study was to evaluate and identify the written language levels of 4th grade students in Elementary School, study the benefits of a proposal of reflexive practices of language for children with adequate learning for the grade in question, also those students that presented oral and written difficulties, and those with risk for this alteration. For the study\'s sample there were 58 students selected from two 4th grade classes in the same school. A Program of Reflexive Practices of Language (PRPL) was prepared, composed of 14 sessions, in which the researcher carried out different linguistic activities for the selected sample group. Before and after the execution of the program, the students were submitted to an individual evaluation, with the purpose of identifying the level of knowledge that each one had regarding oral and written language. The teachers in both classes evaluated each of the students. They also evaluated the program activities and were present during the research execution at the school. After collecting the data, the written language performance levels were compared for each student both pre and post program looking at both quality and quantity of completed testing items. Quantitatively, there was a significant statistical reduction observed in the total number of spelling errors. In addition, increased development in textual production, especially in cohesion and inference were noted. Qualitatively, it was noticed that the PRPL proved to be effective by improving general knowledge that the students had regarding the act of writing, especially in spelling and textual aspects. It was concluded that the activities of promotion of language done in this study constituted an important part in the inclusion of students in the classroom context, even those who present relevant difficulties in the process of acquisition and development of written language.

Studiens syfte var att undersöka stavningen i 20 elevtexter skrivna av elever som antingen var i eller utan lässvårigheter när de gick i årskurs 2. Undersökningen fokuserade på stavningens korrekthet och olika typer av stavfel samt jämförde likheter och skillnader mellan texterna skrivna av elever i och utan lässvårigheter. Materialet bestod av elevtexter som skrevs under den fria narrativa skrivuppgiften i det nationella ämnesprovet i svenska i årskurs 3. Tio av elevtexterna var skrivna av elever som var i lässvårigheter i årskurs 2 och tio texter var skrivna av elever utan lässvårigheter i årskurs 2. För att kunna besvara studiens första forskningsfråga skapades frekvenslistor som presenterade antalet korrekt och inkorrekt stavade ord. För att kunna besvara studiens andra forskningsfråga användes analysmetoden Spelling Sensitivity Score (Masterson & Apel, 2010) där varje ord i elevtexterna analyserades med avseende på korrektheten i fonem-grafem-korrespondensen genom poängsättning från 3–0. Ett korrekt stavat fonem fick 3 poäng. Fonologiska stavfel tilldelades 2 poäng, ortografiska stavfel 1 poäng och utelämnade/tillagda grafem 0 poäng. Resultaten visade att eleverna utan lässvårigheter skrev texter med en signifikant större andel korrekt stavade ord än eleverna i lässvårigheter och att eleverna i lässvårigheter skrev texter som innehöll en signifikant större andel fonologiska stavfel än eleverna utan lässvårigheter. Vidare visade resultaten att texterna skrivna av eleverna utan lässvårigheter uppvisade en marginellt större andel ortografiska stavfel och utelämnade eller extra tillagda grafem än texterna skrivna av elever i lässvårigheter. Sammantaget antyder våra resultat att det är viktigt att stärka den fonologiska medvetenheten hos elever i lässvårigheter för att utveckla deras stavningsförmåga.

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