Ce mémoire porte sur la synthèse et la caractérisation de composés hexaferrites dans le système Ca-Fe-O. Ce travail a permis d’isoler quatre composés sous forme polycristalline ayant pour composition (Ca4Fe5O13)1-x(Fe9O12)1+x (x= 0,334 ; 0,301 et 0,128) et (Ca4Fe5O13)(Fe4O4). Leur structure cristalline a été déterminée à partir de données de diffraction électronique acquises en mode tomographie par précession des électrons et validée à l’aide de l’imagerie haute résolution (HREM et HAADF). Les différents modèles structuraux ont également été confirmés par diffraction des rayons X et des neutrons sur poudre. L’analyse fine des défauts d’intercroissance en imagerie HAADF a révélée des écarts significatifs de composition par rapport à la composition idéale (Ca4Fe5O13)(Fe9O12) à l’origine des trois polymorphes observés. En complément des études menées sur des cristaux de taille micrométrique dans les années 80, l’obtention d’échantillons polycristallins a rendu possible l’étude des propriétés physiques de ces composés. Malgré la complexité de ces structures et la présence de défauts étendus, la spectrométrie Mössbauer a mis en exergue un degré d’oxydation unique pour les atomes de fer (+3) et de confirmer les nombreuses transitions magnétiques initialement détectées par les mesures d’aimantation, ainsi que leur évolution en fonction de l’écart à la stœchiométrie x. Les composés ont également été caractérisés par des mesures de résistivité électrique et de coefficient Seebeck. / This thesis reports on the synthesis and the characterization of hexaferrite compounds in the Ca-Fe-O system. This work has allowed to isolate four polycrystalline compounds presenting the chemical formula (Ca4Fe5O13)1-x(Fe9O12)1+x (x= 0.334; 0.301 and 0.128) and (Ca4Fe5O13)(Fe4O4). Their crystalline structure has been determined using the precession electron diffraction tomography and has been validated through high resolution imaging microscopy (HREM/HAADF). X-ray diffraction and neutron diffraction studies on polycrystalline samples have confirmed the different structural models. Fine analysis of intergrowth defects in HAADF imaging revealed significant deviations in composition with respect to the ideal composition (Ca4Fe5O13)(Fe9O12) at the origin of the three observed polymorphs. In addition to the studies on micron-sized crystals in the 80s, obtaining polycrystralline samples allowed the measurement of their physical properties. Despite the complexity of these structures and the presence of extensive defects, the Mössbauer spectroscopy has highlighted a unique oxidation degree of iron (+3) and confirmed as well the various magnetic transitions initially detected by magnetization measurements, as well as their evolution versus the x deviation value. Electrical resistivity and Seebeck coefficient measurements were performed on the samples.

La polarité est une question critique pour le système de matériaux III-nitrures, qui a un impact sur la qualité des films épitaxies et la performance des dispositifs à base de nitrure. Mais la compréhension des mécanismes élémentaires responsables de l'établissement de la polarité N ou métallique des films sur le substrat non-polaire manque. Les concepts existants sont basés sur des observations empiriques et contiennent des résultats ambigus. Une des raisons principales est le manque d'outils analytiques, permettant la détermination localisée de la polarité et de la structure atomique des couches à l'époque, lorsque les concepts de contrôle de la polarité ont été établis. Dans ce travail, nous développons un concept de contrôle de la polarité dans les couches AlN et GaN épitaxies sur substrat de saphir par EPVOM. La polarité des couches est étudiée par microscopie électronique en transmission (MET) haute résolution corrigée des aberrations et par microscope électronique à balayage en transmission en champ sombre (HAADF-STEM). L'analyse des investigations expérimentales donne les principaux résultats suivants : (i) le mécanisme qui régit la sélection de la polarité ; (ii) la relation entre la nitruration de la surface et les domaines de polarité Al dans les films d'AlN N-polaire ; (iii) possibilité d’inverser la polarité N de films d’AlN de polarité mixte en introduisant un recuit sous oxygène. La compréhension de mécanisme par lequel la polarité est contrôlée ouvre les possibilités d'une ingénierie de polarité dans les films de nitrure et peut donner une idée de la compréhension du contrôle de la polarité dans d'autres systèmes de matériaux (par exemple, les oxydes). / Polarity is a critical issue for III-nitrides material system that has an impact on the quality of epitaxial films and the performance of nitride-based devices. But the understanding of the elementary mechanisms that are responsible for establishing metal or nitrogen polarity of the films on nonpolar substrate is lacking. The existing concepts are based on empirical observations and contain ambiguous results. One of the main reasons for that is the lack of precise analytical tools, allowing localized determination of polarity and atomic structure of layers, at the time, when main concepts for polarity control were established. In this work we develop a concept of polarity control in AlN and GaN layers grown by MOVPE on sapphire substrates. The polarity of the layers is studied by aberration corrected HRTEM and high resolution high-angle annular dark field (HAADF) scanning TEM. The analysis of the experimental investigations yields the following principal results: (i) mechanism that governs polarity selection; (ii) relation between sapphire surface nitridation and Al-polar domains in N-polar AlN films; (iii) possibility of controlled switching the layers polarity from N to Al by oxygen annealing.Understanding of this mechanism by which polarity is controlled opens up the possibilities for polarity engineering in nitride films and can give a clue to understanding polarity control in other material systems (e.g. oxides).

Le nanoalliage cuivre-or (CuAu) pour la catalyse hétérogène fait l'objet d'un intérêt grandissant de la communauté scientifique. En effet, l'alliage de l'or, réputé être un élément stabilisateur, avec le cuivre, réputé très actif notamment vis-à-vis de l'oxygène, offre de très grandes possibilités, tant dans les réactions d'oxydation tel que l'oxydation du monoxyde de carbone, mais aussi dans les réactions d'hydrogénation, telle que l'hydrogénation sélective du butadiène. L'un des processus déterminant dans les réactions d'oxydation et d'hydrogénation est le processus d'adsorption et de dissociation des molécules d'O2 et de H2 par le catalyseur. Afin d'avoir une meilleure compréhension des processus mis en jeu, il est nécessaire d'identifier les sites actifs où a lieu l'adsorption et la dissociation éventuelle des molécules, mais aussi des mécanismes mis en jeu lors de ces processus. Mais aujourd'hui, il n'existe pas de consensus général, dans la communauté scientifique, concernant la localisation des sites actifs. C’est dans ce contexte que s’inscrit ce travail de thèse, mené au laboratoire Matériaux et Phénomènes Quantiques (MPQ) au sein de l'équipe Microscope électronique Avancée et NanoStructures (Me-ANS) dirigé par le professeur Christian Ricolleau. Les deux problématiques majeures auxquelles nous nous sommes intéressées sont (i) la stabilité structurale et morphologique des nanoparticules de Cu, Au et de Cu-Au dans le vide et en température et ce sur différents supports tels que le nitrure de silicium amorphe et le rutile-TiO2, (ii) la stabilité structurale et morphologique des nanoparticules de Cu, Au et de Cu-Au supportées sur rutile-TiO2, sous atmosphère de gaz oxydant (O2) et réducteur (H2). Les objectifs étant d'identifier les sites d'adsorption éventuels des molécules d'O2 et de H2 par les catalyseurs, et de mieux comprendre les mécanismes qui conduisent à l'évolution morphologique de ceux-ci en milieu réactif. / : Copper-gold nanoalloy (CuAu) for heterogeneous catalysis is of increasing interest in the scientific community. Indeed, the alloy of gold, known to be a stabilizing element, with copper, known to be very active with respect to oxygen particularly, shows interesting catalytic properties, in oxidation reactions such as oxidation of carbon monoxide, but also in hydrogenation reactions, such as the selective hydrogenation of butadiene. One of the rate determining step in oxidation and hydrogenation reactions is the process of adsorption and dissociation of O2 and H2 molecules by the catalyst. In order to have a better understanding of the processes involved, it is necessary to identify, the active sites where the eventual adsorption and dissociation of the molecules takes place, but also the mechanisms involved during these processes. However today, there is no general consensus in the scientific community towards the location of the active sites. It is in this context that this thesis work, conducted in the laboratory Materials and Quantum Phenomena (MPQ) within the team Advanced Electron Microscope and NanoStructures (Me-ANS) led by Professor Christian Ricolleau. The two major issues we have been interested in are (i) the structural and morphological stability, in vacuum and with temperature, of Cu, Au and Cu-Au nanoparticles deposited on different substrates such as amorphous silicon nitride and rutile -TiO2 nanorods, (ii) the structural and morphological stability of Cu, Au and Cu-Au nanoparticles supported on rutile-TiO2 under oxidizing (O2) and reducing (H2) atmospheres. The main goals being to identify the possible adsorption sites of the O2 and H2 molecules by the catalysts, and to better understand the mechanisms that lead to the morphological evolution of these NPs in a reactive medium.

The present thesis reports on the transmission electron microscopy structure characterization of semiconducting thin films of higher manganese silicides (HMS or MnSi1.7) grown on (001)Si by different UHV deposition methods (the template method, reactive deposition and surfactant mediated reactive deposition). In this work electron diffraction technique was applied for the fist time to reveal the HMS phase growing in thin MnSi1.7 films. The obtained results suggest the presence of the shortest in c-axis length HMS phase, namely Mn4Si7, within our experiments. It has been shown that growth of epitaxial Mn4Si7 grains can be achieved by the template technique. In particular, the influence of the template thickness on the silicide layer quality has been investigated. It has been found that deposition of a thin Mn layer of 0.8 nm nominal thickness at room temperature prior to the Mn/Si codeposition at 550°C causes the formation of a silicide template that leads to the preferred epitaxial Mn4Si7 growth with (110)[4-41]Mn4Si7 || (001)[110]Si. Silicide crystallites of two additional orientation relations, (3-38)[-443]Mn4Si7 || (001)[110]Si and (001)[110] Mn4Si7 || (001)[110]Si, were present at the same template thickness to a lesser extent. Due to the crystal symmetry of Mn4Si7 and Si the epitaxial Mn4Si7 growth on (001)Si leads to the formation of a number of Mn4Si7 domains for each observed orientation. Additional experiments were carried out using the reactive deposition process. It has been shown that the deposition of Mn onto (001)Si at substrate temperatures higher then 600°C leads to the formation of large silicide islands growing with the major part of their elongated grains parallel to <110>Si. XRD investigations show the observed silicide grains to exhibit the following texture: (110)Mn4Si7 || (001)Si. The found island morphology of Mn4Si7 films can be modified by the deposition of about one monolayer of Sb (surfactant) onto (001)Si prior to the Mn-deposition. This process results in an increase of the silicide island density by about two orders of magnitude and decrease of the silicide grain dimensions to nanometer range. Furthermore, in the presence of Sb the silicide layers grow with the preferential orientation: (100)[010]Mn4Si7 || (001)[100]Si. The observed changes in the morphology and orientation of the Mn4Si7 layers can be explained by the reduced diffusion of Mn and Si atoms in the presence of the Sb overlayer. / In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die Struktur von dünnen MnSi1.7-Schichten, die mit verschiedenen UHV-Herstellungsmethoden (template-Verfahren, reaktive Abscheidung und surfactant gesteuerte Abscheidung) auf (001)Si hergestellt wurden, mittels Elektronenmikroskopie charakterisiert. Die Ergebnisse der Elektronenbeugung an dünnen Mangansilicid-Schichten können vollständig interpretiert werden, wenn von den bekannten höheren Mangansiliciden (HMS) das Mn4Si7 als einzige vorliegende Phase angenommen wird. Der Hauptteil der Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit den mittels template-Verfahren abgeschiedenen Mn4Si7-Schichten. In diesen Experimenten wurde der Einfluss der template-Dicke auf die Morphologie und Orientierung der hergestellten Schichten untersucht. Es wird gezeigt, dass bei der Abscheidung von einer dünnen Mn-Schicht mit einer nominalen Dicke von 0,8 nm bei Raumtemperatur und weiterer Mn/Si-Koabscheidung bei einer Substrattemperatur von 550°C nahezu geschlossene Silicidschichten mit der bevorzugten Orientierungsbeziehung (110)[4-41]Mn4Si7 || (001)[110]Si entstehen. Weiterhin wachsen bei dieser template-Dicke Mn4Si7-Kristallite mit den Orientierungsbeziehungen: (3-38)[-443]Mn4Si7 || (001)[110]Si und (001)[110] Mn4Si7 || (001)[110]Si. Bei jeder gefundenen Orientierungsbeziehung treten beim Wachstum von Mn4Si7 auf (001)Si mehrere Domäne auf. Zusätzliche Experimente wurden unter Verwendung der reaktiven Schichtabscheidung durchgeführt. Sie verdeutlichen, dass bei reaktiver Abscheidung von Mn auf (001)Si ab einer Substrattemperatur von 600°C ein Wachstum von Mn4Si7-Inseln entlang den [110]-Richtungen des Siliciums erfolgt. XRD-Untersuchungen zeigen, dass diese Inseln die folgende Textur haben: (110)Mn4Si7 || (001)Si. Durch eine Modifizierung der Si-Oberfläche mit einer bis zu einer Monolage dicken Sb-Schicht (surfactant) kann das Mn4Si7-Inselwachstum beeinflusst werden. Die dabei gefundene Erhöhung der Mn4Si7-Inseldichte wird hier auf die reduzierte Mn- und Si-Diffusion zurükgeführt. Weiterhin wurde gefunden, dass dieser Abscheidungsprozess Mn4Si7-Kristallite der bevorzugten Orientierung (100)[010]Mn4Si7 || (001)[110]Si liefert.

As the success of nanostructures grows in modern society so does the importance of our ability to control their synthesis in precise manners, often with atomic precision as this can directly affect the final properties of the nanostructures. Hence it is crucial to have both deep insight, ideally with real-time temporal resolution, and precise control during the fabrication of nanomaterials. Transmission electron microscopy offers these attributes potentially providing atomic resolution with near real time temporal resolution. In addition, one can fabricate nanostructures in situ in a TEM. This can be achieved with the use of environmental electron microscopes and/or specialized specimen holders. A rather simpler and rapidly growing approach is to take advantage of the imaging electron beam as a tool for in situ reactions. This is possible because there is a wealth of electron specimen interactions, which, when implemented under controlled conditions, enable different approaches to fabricate nanostructures. Moreover, when using the electron beam to drive reactions no specialized specimen holders or peripheral equipment is required. This review is dedicated to explore the body of work available on electron-beam induced synthesis techniques with in situ capabilities. Particular emphasis is placed on the electron beam-induced synthesis of nanostructures conducted inside a TEM, viz. the e-beam is the sole (or primary) agent triggering and driving the synthesis process.

Aim: The present study aimed to evaluate the impact of caries activity on the key enzymes and the ultrastructure of the in situ pellicle. Methods: Pellicle formation was performed on bovine enamel slabs. Intraoral exposure (3, 30, and 120 min) was accomplished by 14 caries-active (DMFS: 22.7 ± 12.1) and 13 caries-inactive (DMFS: 1.5 ± 1.8) individuals. The enzyme activities (lysozyme, peroxidase, α-amylase, glycosyltransferase [GTF]) in the in situ pellicle and resting saliva of all participants were analyzed directly after oral exposure. In addition, a simultaneous visualization of these enzymes, extracellular glucans, and adherent bacteria was carried out. Fluorescent patterns were analyzed with fluorescence labeling and 4 ′ ,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole/concanavalin A staining. In addition, the distribution of GTF B, C, and D and the ultrastructure of the pellicle were examined by gold immunolabeling and transmission electron microscopy with selected samples. Results: Enzyme activities of amylase, peroxidase, lysozyme, and GTF were detected on all enamel slabs in an active conformation. Neither exposure time nor caries activity had an impact on the enzyme activities. Gold immunolabeling indicated that the pellicle of caries-active subjects tends to more GTF D molecules. The pellicles of caries-inactive and -active individuals revealed a similar ultrastructural pattern. Conclusion: The enzyme activities as well as the pellicle’s ultrastructure are of high similarity in cariesactive and -inactive subjects. Thereby, oral exposure time has no significant influence. This reflects a high uniformity during the initial phase of bioadhesion (3–120 min) concerning enzymatic functions. However, there is a tendency towards more GTF D in caries-active individuals.

The structural evolution of carbon:transition metal (C:TM) nanocomposite thin films is investigated in two regimes: (i) surface diffusion governed regime occurring during the film growth and (ii) bulk diffusion dominated regime occurring during the post-deposition thermal annealing. C:V, C:Co, and C:Cu nanocomposite films were grown by ion beam co-sputtering. The influence of the metal type, metal content (15-40 at.%), substrate temperature (RT-500°C), and annealing temperature (300-700°C) on the structure and morphology of the composite is studied by the means of elastic recoil detection analysis, X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and Raman spectroscopy. Vanadium (copper) is in carbidic (metallic) state in the whole temperature range of the study. In contrast, cobalt is in carbidic state up to 300°C and becomes metallic at higher growth temperatures. The nanoparticles in C:V films exhibit a globular shape at RT-500°C, whereas in C:Co and C:Cu films a growth transition from globular to elongated nanoparticles occurs around 300°C. The comparison of the Raman spectroscopy results from carbon reference and C:TM thin films shows that the presence of the metal during growth significantly enhances the formation of sixfold ring carbon clusters at temperatures as low as RT. The enhancement occurs independently of the nanoparticle size, shape, and phase, and metal content, and is related to processes taking place on the nanoparticle surface of the growing film rather than in the bulk. The degree of enhancement depends on the TM type and content. Post-deposition annealing of C:Co and C:Cu films at 700°C causes the metal segregation at the film surface, while no changes upon annealing occur in C:V films. In addition, cobalt brings about the carbon graphitization by a dissolution-diffusion-precipitation mechanism, similar to the metal-mediated crystallization of amorphous silicon or germanium. No graphitization upon annealing occurs in C:V, C:Cu, and carbon reference films. / Die Strukturentwicklung in Kohlenstoff-Übergangsmetall-Nanokompositschichten wird in zwei Bereichen untersucht: (i) im oberflächendiffusionsgesteuerten Bereich während des Schichtwachstums und (ii) im bulkdiffusionsdominierten Bereich während des nachträglichen Temperns. C:V, C:Co und C:Cu Nanokompositschichten wurden durch Ionenstrahl Co-Sputtern hergestellt. Der Einfluss des Metalltyps, des Metallgehalts (15-40 at.%), der Substrattemperatur (RT-500°C) und der Temperatur beim Tempern (300-700°C) auf die Struktur und Morphologie des Komposits wird mittels elastischer Rückstoßteilchen-Analyse, Röntgenbeugung, Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie und Ramanspektroskopie untersucht. Vanadium (Kupfer) ist im gesamten Temperaturbereich der Studie in karbidischem (metallischen) Zustand. Im Gegensatz dazu befindet sich Kobalt bis zu einer Temperatur von 300°C in karbidischem Zustand und wird bei höheren Abscheidetemperaturen metallisch. Die Nanopartikel in C:V Filmen besitzen eine runde Form im Temperaturbereich von RT bis 500°C wohingegen bei den C:Co und C:Cu Filmen ein Übergang von runden zu länglichen Partikeln bei etwa 300°C zu beobachten ist. Der Vergleich der Ramanspektroskopieresultate der Kohlenstoffreferenzproben und der Nanokompositschichten zeigt, dass die Anwesenheit des Metalls während des Schichtwachstums die Bildung von sechsatomigen Kohlenstoffringclustern bei Temperaturen so niedrig wie Raumtemperatur deutlich fördert. Die Erhöhung tritt unabhängig von der Partikelgröße, -form und phase und unabhängig vom Metallgehalt auf, und betrifft eher Prozesse, die auf der Oberfläche der Nanopartikel während des Schichtwachstums stattfinden als im Bulk. Der Grad der Erhöhung hängt vom Metalltyp und -gehalt ab. Nachträgliches Tempern der C:Co und C:Cu Filme bei 700°C führt zur Segregation des Metalls an der Schichtoberfläche während in den C:V Filmen keine Veränderungen durch das Tempern auftreten. Des weiteren kommt es in den C:Co Filmen zur Graphitisierung des Kohlenstoffs durch einen „Lösungs-Diffusions-Ablagerungs“ Mechanismus ähnlich der metallvermittelten Kristallisierung in amorphem Silizium und Germanium. In den C:V, C:Cu und Kohlenstoffreferenzfilmen findet keine Graphitisierung während des Temperns statt.

Ces travaux de thèse réalisés entre l'IRT Saint Exupéry et le CEMES, Université de Toulouse, CNRS ont pour objet l'étude d’alliages de la série 2000 pour des utilisations à des températures intermédiaires, de l'ordre de 200°C. La possibilité d'utiliser ces matériaux à cette température permettrait aux industriels du secteur aéronautique de réduire les coûts de production d'une part, et de diminuer les coûts d'exploitation des aéronefs ainsi plus légers d'autre part. Afin de répondre à cette problématique industrielle, deux nuances commerciales ont été considérées : le 2219-T851 et le 2050-T84. Ces nuances, déjà utilisées dans l'industrie aéronautique, ont été caractérisées à différentes échelles d'observation tout au long d'un vieillissement isotherme à 200°C allant jusqu’à 10000 h. Des observations effectuées à l'aide de divers microscopes optiques et électroniques et couplées à des essais mécaniques macroscopiques ont permis de déterminer l'évolution de ces nuances vieillies dans de telles conditions. Les résultats de cette étude montrent une importante stabilité thermodynamique des précipités nanométriques θ'-Al2Cu. Ces précipités constituent la microstructure fine de la nuance 2219-T851 à réception et apparaissent au cours du vieillissement au sein de la nuance 2050-T84 au détriment des précipités T1-Al2CuLi pourtant à l'origine des meilleures performances mécaniques avant vieillissement. Les évolutions microstructurales sont mises en lien avec les propriétés mécaniques en traction. Ces résultats montrent un intérêt industriel pour la nuance 2219-T851 dont la stabilité des propriétés a été montrée dès 1000h de vieillissement. / The main objective of this work which has been conducted between the IRT Saint Exupéry and the CEMES, Université de Toulouse, CNRS laboratory is to reduce production and exploitation costs of aircraft primary structures by evaluating the potential increase of operating temperatures of aluminum alloys. To do so, two already fit-to-fly Al-Cu alloys have been selected and studied: the 2219-T851 and the 2050-T84. These alloys have been characterized throughout ageing treatments up to 10,000h at 200°C with electronic and optical microscopies in order to evaluate the microstructural changes. Standardized mechanical tests have also been conducted to follow the effects of such ageing on the alloys’ properties. The results have shown the stability of the mechanical properties and the microstructure of the 2219-T851 from 1,000h to 10,000h of ageing. This is attributed to the nano-precipitation of θ'-Al2 Cu, stable during the ageing treatment. Moreover, those precipitates tend to form during the ageing of the 2050-T84 by replacing the well known T1-Al2CuLi phase, unstable during medium range temperature ageing. During this thesis, special attention has been paid on the link between the mechanical properties and the fine scale microstructures of both alloys.

Beurteilung von nativen und aufgetauten Spermatozoen fertiler und subfertiler Hengste mit Hilfe der Phasenkontrast- und Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie. Institut für Veterinär-Pathologie der Veterinärmedizinischen Fakultät, Universität Leipzig Reproduktionsmedizinische Einheit der Kliniken der Tierärztlichen Hochschule Hannover In dieser Arbeit wurde die Ultrastruktur von nativen und tiefgefrorenen Spermien mittels Phasenkontrast- und Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie (TEM) untersucht. Für die Beurteilung der Spermienmotilität und der Morphologie von in Formolzitrat fixierten Spermien standen jeweils drei Ejakulate von 50 Hannoveraner Hengsten des Niedersächsischen Landgestüts Celle zur Verfügung. Aus dieser Gruppe wurden drei fertile, drei subfertile Hengste und 6 Hengste mittlerer Fertilität ausgewählt, von denen sowohl die Nativ-Proben als auch eine Tiefgefrierprobe (TG-Probe) für die TEM im Institut für Veterinär-Pathologie der Universität Leipzig gemäß des Standardprotokolls des Institutes aufbereitet wurden. Die Spermien wurden gewaschen und das Seminalplasma der nativen Proben oder der Verdünner der TG-Proben abpipettiert und durch eine 5%-ige Glutaraldehydlösung in einem 0,1 M Kakodylatpuffer (pH 7,2) ersetzt. Die Fixierungslösung wurde anschließend entfernt und das Pellet gewaschen und danach mit Gelatine gemischt. Die spermienreichen Stellen wurden aus der Gelatine herausgeschnitten und in Glutaraldehyd aufbewahrt. Nach einer Nachfixierung in OsO4 und einer Entwässerung in Ethanollösungen erfolgte eine Einbettung in einer Eponmischung. Nach einer Polymerisation von 5 Tagen wurden die eingebetteten Eponblöckchen angetrimmt und die Semi- und Ultradünnschnitte angefertigt. Die Ultradünnschnitte wurden auf ein Kupfergrid gelegt, mit Uranylazetat und Bleizitrat kontrastiert und mit dem Transmissionselektronenmikroskop (Zeiss EM 900, Oberkochem) bei 80 kV analysiert. In den nativen Proben wurden insgesamt 360 Spermien pro Hengst beurteilt, in den TG-Proben 120 Spermien pro Hengst. Die Qualität der elektronenmikroskopischen Aufnahmen war sehr gut, doch die Plasmamembran zeigte fixierungsbedingte Artefakte. Nach dem Auftauen waren die Bilder heller und der Kontrast etwas geringer. Es gab eine Zunahme an Akrosomdefekten, akrosomreagierten Spermien und Beschädigungen der Plasmamembran, der Mitochondrien, sowie der Mantel- und Ringfasern. Durch die Membranbeschädigungen trat auch eine Verringerung der Anzahl proximaler und distaler Zytoplasmatropfen auf. Sowohl geschwollene Akrosome mit einer niedrigeren Dichte der akrosomalen Matrix als auch Mitochondrien mit einer zu hellen mitochondrialen Matrix waren typische Befunde in den TG-Proben. Die Studie der Ultrastruktur und die wahrgenommenen Defekte führten zur Erstellung eines Standardprotokolls für die transmissionselektronenmikroskopische Beurteilung von Hengstspermien. Die Beurteilung mittels TEM sollte aber nicht zu einer quantitativen, sondern zu einer qualitativen Aussage führen. Sie ermöglicht die Diagnose von Kern- (Kerndeformationen und Taschenbildung im Kern) und Akrosomabweichungen (deformierte Akrosome mit oder ohne Vakuolenbildung, abgehobene Akrosome und akrosomreagierte Spermien), Anomalien der Mitochondrien (Unterbrechung der Mitochondrienscheide, zu viele Mitochondrien, anormale Dichte der mitochondrialen Matrix), Defekten des Axonemas (Ordnung oder Anzahl der Mikrotubuli, Mantel- und Ringfasern) und der Anwesenheit immaturer Spermienvorstufen. Diese Methode eignet sich für die Diagnostik subfertiler Hengste mit normalen Spermienparametern bei der routinemäßige Spermienbeurteilung und kann sowohl in nativen als auch in TG-Proben angewendet werden. Im Vergleich zur Phasenkontrastmikroskopie waren die elektronenmikroskopischen Bilder wegen ihrer stärkeren Vergrößerung und der Darstellung innerer Spermienstrukturen viel aussagekräftiger. Für die Beurteilung von Halsansatzdefekten, abweichende Geißelformen und Mehrfachmißbildungen ist die Phasenkontrastmikroskopie die am besten geeignete Methode. / Evaluation of fresh and frozen-thawed semen samples of fertile and subfertile stallions by light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Institut of Pathology of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig Reproduktionsmedizinische Einheit der Kliniken der Tierärztlichen Hochschule Hannover In this study the ultrastructure of fresh and frozen-thawed semen samples of 50 stallions from the National Stud of Lower Saxony (Celle, Germany) were evaluated by light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Three ejaculates of each stallion were available for the motility analysis and the morphological analysis by lightmicroscopy after fixation in formol citrate. Based on the fertility data, the ejaculates of 12 stallions (3 fertile stallions, 3 subfertile stallions and 6 stallions of average fertility) were selected for the morphological analysis by TEM. The native samples and one frozen-thawed sample from these stallions were prepared for the TEM at the Institute of Pathology of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Uni-versity of Leipzig. The sperm cells were washed and the seminal plasma from the native samples and the diluents of the frozen-thawed samples were replaced by a 5%-glutaraldehyde solution in a 0,1 M cacodylate buffer pH 7,2. The fixative was removed, the pellet was washed again and mixed with gelatin. The sperm rich fraction in the gelatin mass was excised and stored in glutaraldehyde. A second fixation in OsO4 was followed by a dehydratation in ethanol and a polymerization phase in epon. After 5 days of polymerization the starred samples were used for semi- and ultratight cuts. The latter were placed on a copper grid, contrasted with uranyl acetate and lead citrate and analyzed with the transmission electron micro-scope (EM 900) by 80 kV. In the fresh samples, 360 sperm cells were examined per stallion, whereas in the frozen-thawed samples only 120 sperm cells per stallion were evaluated. The microscopic pictures were of a high quality. However, the sperm plasma membrane showed some fixation artifacts. In the thawed samples a lower contrast was noticed than in the fresh samples. The sperm cells in the frozen-thawed samples showed an increase in acrosome defects, acrosome reactions, damage of the cell plasma membrane, mitochondria, fibrous sheet and outer dense fibers. The latter defect was associated with a decrease in proximal and distal cytoplasmatic droplets. Swollen acrosomes with a lower matrix density and a bright mitochondrial matrix were typically present in the cryopreserved samples. The ultrastructural defects in these samples, examined by TEM, have led to the development of a standard evaluation protocol with the most common sperm defects in stallion semen. TEM is an expensive and time consuming technique, which cannot be used to obtain quantitative results, but is considered as an accurate method for the qualitative examination of semen samples in cases of unexplained subfertility. TEM can especially be recommended for the diagnosis of nuclear (nuclear malformations and pouches) and acrosomal defects (acrosome deformations, acrosome vacuoles, detached acrosomes and acrosome reactions), mitochondrial (mitochondrial sheet defects, mitochondrial proliferation, decrease in mitochondrial matrix density) and axonema malformations (anormal position or quantity of microtubules and fibrous sheet or outer dense fibers defects) and the detection of immature sperm cells in ejaculates. The results of this study state that TEM can be useful for the evaluation of both fresh and frozen-thawed semen samples. Compared to the light microscopic evaluation of stallion sperm, the TEM images give more precise information because of their higher magnification rate and the ability to reveal internal sperm structures. However, light microscopy remains the best method to detect sperm neck defects, deformed tailes and sperm cells with multiple heads or tails.

<p>  </p> <p>Tenderness is a key sensory trait influencing beef palatability. Tumbling is a value-adding process that has been extensively applied and studied within the realm of processed meats. Various post-harvest strategies to ensure fresh beef reaches acceptable levels of tenderness have been employed, often with the aim of physically disrupting myofibrillar structure or enhancing the rate and extent of postmortem proteolysis. One such method would be the application of postmortem aging; however, the effectiveness of aging on tenderization is well-known to differ throughout individual muscles of the beef carcass. For inherently tough cuts, physical interventions such as mechanical tenderization are often used, although several detriments to quality attributes may be induced. Further, some modern consumers prefer meat products with no added non-meat ingredients. An alternative method of applying tumbling in the absence of a brine solution followed by additional postmortem aging could be a practical means to facilitate tenderization while potentially minimizing detriments to other eating quality attributes.</p> <p>To evaluate the efficacy of tumbling without brine a method of beef tenderization, the process was first assessed in the <em>longissimus lumborum </em>muscle (n=9). In this study, muscles were allocated among 0, 60, and 90 minutes of tumbling, after which aging for 0, 7, and 14 days was conducted. Immediately after the application of the tumbling process, steaks from muscles that had been tumbled were considerably more tender (24.7 N and 21.6 N for 60 and 90 minutes, respectively) than non-tumbled controls (34.8 N). Steaks from the tumbled groups maintained greater instrumental tenderness throughout the course of the aging period. These results were supported by increases in myofibril fragmentation index, as well as increased troponin-T degradation during aging. However, cooking loss was increased in tumbled steaks, which could have implications for sensory juiciness. Considering this study demonstrated that tumbling without brine inclusion followed by postmortem aging resulted in profound changes to sensory traits, further study regarding its impacts on sensory attributes and proteolysis among different beef muscles was warranted.</p> <p>The following study evaluated the combined tumbling and aging process on the quality, palatability, and proteolytic attributes of beef <em>longissimus lumborum </em>and <em>semitendinosus </em>muscles (n=16). Muscle sections were allocated among 0, 40, 80, and 120 minutes of tumbling, as well as 0 or 10 days of subsequent aging. Regardless of aging duration, tumbling for any duration increased instrumental tenderness of the <em>longissimus lumborum</em> but not <em>semitendinosus</em> muscle. Similar to the previous study, increased cooking loss was induced through tumbling. In both muscles, obvious fragmentation of the myofibrillar structure with tumbling was observed through increases in myofibril fragmentation index and transmission electron microscopy. Tumbling with aging favored the degradation of myofibrillar proteins including troponin-T and desmin; however, calpain-1 autolysis appeared mostly unchanged. Neither tumbling nor aging influenced the amount and properties of collagen, which may indicate why the process did not influence instrumental tenderness of the <em>semitendinosus </em>despite myofibrillar fragmentation and degradation. <em>Longissimus lumborum </em>muscles tumbled for any durations were rated by consumers (n=120) to be more tender with greater overall liking than control steaks. <em>Semitendinosus </em>steaks that were tumbled for 120 minutes and further aged had improved liking of tenderness with similar juiciness and flavor to control steaks at the same postmortem timepoint. These results indicated that tumbling without brine would result in myofibrillar fragmentation and favor the degradation of myofibrillar proteins during aging, while impacts on connective tissues would be minimal. Consequently, muscles without a high extent of background toughness would be effectively tenderized through tumbling, while the results would be more limited in inherently tough cuts.</p> <p>Considering these results, the process was then applied to muscles of intermediate tenderness from the sirloin, specifically the <em>gluteus medius, biceps femoris, </em>and <em>tensor fasciae latae </em>muscles (n=16). Muscles were tumbled for 0 or 120 minutes, then aged for 0 or 10 additional days. Tumbling increased the instrumental tenderness of the <em>gluteus medius </em>and <em>tensor fasciae latae </em>but not the <em>biceps femoris</em>, regardless of aging time. Cooking loss was increased with tumbling in all muscles. Similarly, myofibrillar fragmentation was also increased in all muscles, and there was some evidence to suggest that tumbling with subsequent aging would aid in the degradation of troponin-T in the <em>biceps femoris</em>. To further understand how tumbling might affect specific descriptive sensory attributes, a trained panel (n=8) was conducted on aged samples. Tumbled <em>gluteus medius </em>steaks had greater myofibrillar tenderness than non-tumbled controls; however, tenderness scores of other muscles were not affected. There was some evidence that tumbling with aging could induce the generation of off-flavors in the <em>gluteus medius </em>and <em>tensor fasciae latae</em>, as well as decrease juiciness of the <em>biceps femoris</em>.</p> <p>Taken together, these results support that tumbling without brine inclusion would be an effective strategy to improve beef tenderness and palatability, dependent on the traits of the individual cut. Improved tenderness would be primarily attributed to the fragmentation and degradation of myofibrillar structure. However, the results indicate that tenderization would be limited in cuts with a high extent of background toughness, which tumbling alone would be largely unable to disrupt. Future studies should focus on the effects of tumbling without brine inclusion with aging on oxidative stability and the potential introduction of hazards prior to industry application. Further elucidation of how the process could be optimized to maximize tenderization while minimizing potential negative impacts to flavor and juiciness would be beneficial to improving overall palatability.</p>