4 Abstract The Wnt pathway is one of the major signaling cascades contributing to multiple cellular processes during embryogenesis, and adult tissue homeostasis and regeneration. Moreover, aberrant activation of the Wnt signaling pathway is connected with development of neoplasia, notably colorectal cancer. The aim of the thesis was to identify new ways of the Wnt pathway regulation to understand better physiological as well as non-physiological mechanisms of Wnt signaling. The results are summarized in four publications. The first article deals with TROY, a member of tumor necrosis factor receptor family. We identified TROY as a Wnt target gene during our search for Wnt responsive genes in colorectal cancer cell lines. Additionally, we detected expression of Troy in tumors of two mouse models of intestinal cancer. In the healthy gut, Troy is produced in fast cycling intestinal stem cells where negatively regulates the Wnt pathway. The second study focuses on processing and posttranslational modification of murine Wnt1 and Wnt3a. Wnts are glycosylated and double acetylated by lipid adducts and our results revealed that O-linked acylation of serine is required for the subsequent S-palmitoylation of cysteine. Moreover, acylation of Wnts is connected with their signaling activity which is related to Wnt1 and...

Signaling pathways function as molecular instruments mediating cellular response to intrinsic and extrinsic inputs, which can consequently lead to cell division or differentiation on one side and cell death on the other. Molecular network of different pathways enables the intercellular communication and hence the whole organism can exist and function coordinately. The Wnt signaling pathway belongs among evolutionarily old and conserved molecular pathways and acts in many different processes during development. Moreover, it is necessary for maintenance of adult tissues as it participates in regeneration. Diverse malignancies, where repressive components of the Wnt pathway are non-functional, represent seamy side of the scope. This thesis is based on 4 publications covering Wnt signaling on very multifarious levels. Firstly, I focus on processing of Wnt protein which stands at the beginning of the cascade as extracellular morphogen. Secondly, survival effect of Wnt producing fibroblasts on leukemia cells after induction of apoptosis by ligand TRAIL is discussed. The third issue shows novel components of the Wnt signaling pathway and introduces us into nucleus - "bottom" level of the pathway. 1. Fatty acid modification of Wnt1 and Wnt3a at serine is prerequisite for lipidation at cysteine and is...

Les surrénales sont des glandes endocrines permettant la réponse au stress de l’organisme. Alors que la medulla produit des catécholamines, la corticosurrénale sécrète des minéralocorticoïdes au niveau de la zone glomérulée, et des glucocorticoïdes grâce aux cellules de la zone fasciculée. Ces hormones sont notamment impliquées dans l’homéostasie hydrominérale, la réponse immunitaire et la maturation pulmonaire au cours de la vie fœtale. Les insuffisances surrénaliennes peuvent donc être très délétère en absence de traitement. Pour maintenir l’intégrité tissulaire au cours de la vie et pour mieux répondre aux variations des besoins de l’organisme, le cortex surrénalien est en renouvellement cellulaire constant. Des expériences de lignage ont mis en évidence que ce renouvellement repose sur le recrutement de cellules progénitrices capsulaires et situées dans la partie externe du cortex. Lorsqu’ils sont mobilisés, ces progéniteurs se différencient en cellules de la zone glomérulée, qui vont alors migrer de façon centripète le long du cortex et se différencier en cellules de la zone fasciculée après une conversion de lignage, au cours de leur migration. Cette conversion de lignage est orchestrée via un équilibre entre l’activation des voies Wnt/β-caténine, imposant une identité glomérulée, et PKA, permettant une différenciation fasciculée. Les facteurs épigénétiques jouent de nombreux rôles essentiels, du développement embryonnaire jusqu’à la tumorigenèse, en passant par l’homéostasie des tissus. Nous avons montré que la méthyltransférase EZH2 était le facteur épigénétique le plus surexprimé dans les carcinomes corticosurrénaliens et que cette surexpression était associée à l’agressivité de ces cancers. EZH2 est la sous-unité catalytique du complexe multi-protéique PRC2 qui permet, entre autres, la répression de la transcription de ses gènes cibles en posant la marque H3K27me3. L’objectif de ma thèse a été d’identifier les potentiels rôles physiologiques de EZH2 dans la surrénale, qui n’avaient jusque là, jamais été recherchés.En développant un modèle murin d’invalidation génétique de Ezh2 dans le cortex surrénalien, dès l’émergence de l’ébauche surrénalienne au cours du développement embryonnaire, nous avons pu mettre en évidence une hypoplasie corticosurrénalienne, résultant d’une forte atrophie de la zone fasciculée, et associé à une insuffisance primaire en glucocorticoïdes. Nos analyses nous ont permis de démontrer le rôle original et inattendu de Ezh2 dans le contrôle de la voie de signalisation PKA, en réprimant l’expression d’inhibiteurs de cette voie comme les phosphodiestérases (PDE) et la sous-unité régulatrice Prkar1b. EZH2 régule ainsi la zonation fonctionnelle du cortex surrénalien via son activité histone méthyltransférase. A l’inverse, on n’observe pas d’altération marquée de la voie Wnt/β-caténine, suggérant que Ezh2 n’est pas essentiel au contrôle de cette voie dans la surrénale. Nous avons également pu mettre en évidence une dédifférenciation de cellules corticales qui retrouvent, suite à la perte de Ezh2, une identité progénitrice en exprimant des marqueurs adréno-gonadique tels que Gata4 et Wt1. Cette dédifférenciation est un phénomène naturel que l’on retrouve avec le vieillissement et qui pourrait être associée avec la diminution progressive de l’expression de Ezh2 dans les cellules stéroïdogènes. L’ensemble de ces résultats, met en évidence une nouvelle fonction de Ezh2 dans le contrôle de la voie de signalisation PKA et de l’homéostasie de la glande surrénale. / Adrenals are endocrine glands allowing the stress response of the organism. While the medulla produces catecholamines, the adrenal cortex secretes mineralocorticoids in the glomerular zone, and glucocorticoids through cells in the fasciculated zone. These hormones are notably involved in hydromineral homeostasis, the immune response and pulmonary maturation during fetal life. Adrenal insufficiency can therefore be very deleterious in the absence of treatment. To maintain tissue integrity over the course of life and to better respond to the changing needs of the body, the adrenal cortex is in constant cell renewal. Lineage experiments have shown that this renewal is based on the recruitment of capsular progenitor cells and progenitors located in the outer part of the cortex. When mobilized, these progenitors differentiate into cells of the glomerular zone, which then migrate centripetally along the cortex and differentiate into cells of the fasciculated zone after lineage conversion, during their migration. This lineage conversion is orchestrated via a balance between the activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, imposing a glomerular identity, and PKA pathway, allowing fasciculated differentiation. Epigenetic factors play many important roles, from embryonic development to tumorigenesis, passing by tissue homeostasis. We have shown that methyltransferase EZH2 is the most overexpressed epigenetic factor in adrenocortical carcinomas and this overexpression is associated with cancer agressivity. EZH2 is the catalytic subunit of the multiprotein complex PRC2 that allow, among others things, the repression of the transcription of its target genes by posing the mark H3K27me3. The aim of my thesis was to indentify the putative physiological roles of EZH2 in the adrenal, never investigated yet.By developing a murine model of genetic invalidation of Ezh2 in the adrenal cortex, from the emergence of the adrenal anlagen during embryonic development, we have been able to demonstrate adrenocortical hypoplasia, resulting from a strong atrophy of the zona fasciculata, and associated with primary glucocorticoid insufficiency. Our analyses allowed us to demonstate the original and unexpected role of EZH2 in the controle of the PKA pathway, by repressing expression of this pathway inhibitors such as phosphodiesterases (PDE) and regulatory subunit Prkar1b. EZH2 thus regulate functionel zonation of adrenal cortex via its histone methyltransferase activity. On the contrary, we don’t observe marked alteration of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, suggesting EZH2 is not essential for the control of this pathway in the adrenal. We could also show a dedifferenciation of cortical cells which, after the loss of Ezh2, exhibit progenitors identity by expressing adreno-gonadal marks as Gata4 and Wt1. This dedifferenciation is a natural phenomenon that appear with ageing and could be associated with processive decrease of Ezh2 expression in steroidogenic cells. All of these results, highlights a new function of Ezh2 in the control of the PKA signaling pathway and in the homeostasis of the adrenal gland.

Beyond its essential roles in embryonic development, the Wnt-mediated signal transduction cascade is critically implicated in homeostasis of adult tissues. In the gastrointestinal epithelium, the threshold of active Wnt signaling is kept in a physiological range by a spectrum of regulatory networks and loops, thereby balancing the opposing processes of cell fate determination, proliferation and stem cell self-renewal. Furthermore, compelling evidence undoubtedly link an aberrant Wnt activity to the onset of bowel cancer. Understanding the principle causes and effects secondary to excessive Wnt signaling can provide valuable insights into the pathology of the malignant transformation of the colorectum. The proposed thesis attempts to focus on novel modes of the Wnt pathway modulation; both general and context-specific nuances of the Wnt level adjustment are thereby delineated. The results are presented in three distinct research publications and one review article. The first study examines the contribution of the distinct post-translational modifications, which the Wnt proteins undergo, to their proper processing, secretion and signaling activity. First, we investigated the sequential order and mutual interdependence of cysteine and serine-linked fatty acylation and N-linked glycosylation of murine...

Die Signalübertragung durch Wnt/beta-Catenin stellt einen der wichtigsten Signalwege während der Embryogenese sowie im adulten Organismus dar. Die homologen Gerüstproteine Conductin und Axin stehen im Mittelpunkt eines zentralen Multiproteinkomplexes, der im Zytoplasma für die Regulation des Wnt/beta-Catenin-Signalwegs verantwortlich ist. In der vorliegenden Arbeit habe ich eine kombinierte genetische Analyse von Conductin und Axin in der Maus durchgeführt. Dazu habe ich mit Hilfe der Technik der homologen Rekombination das Conductin-Gen deletiert und ein Reportergen unter die Kontrolle des endogenen Conductin-Promotors gebracht. Im Weiteren habe ich festgestellt, dass der gemeinsame Verlust von Conductin und einem Axin-Allel (Con-/-;Ax+/-) zu Holoprosenzephalie (HPE) führt, die durch schwere kraniofazialen und Vorderhirndefekten in der Maus charakterisiert ist. Dabei zeigte die detaillierte Analyse eine genetische Interaktion des Wnt-Signalwegs mit dem Shh-Signalweg. Störungen im Shh-Signalweg sind auch beim Menschen für die Ausbildung von HPE verantwortlich gemacht worden. Daneben führt die gleichzeitige Abwesenheit von Conductin und Axin (Con-/-;Ax-/-) zum Verlust der anterior-posterioren Achse in einem frühen Entwicklungsstadium und zum Absterben der Embryonen nach dem Tag 6,5 der Entwicklung. Die vorliegende Arbeit zeigt, wie Unterschiede in der biologischen Bedeutung zweier funktionell redundanter Faktoren mit genetischen Methoden in der Maus aufgeklärt werden können. / The Wnt/beta-Catenin pathway represents one of the most important signaling cascades during development as well as in the adult organism. The homologous scaffolding proteins Conductin and Axin are the backbone of a central multi protein complex that is responsible for the tight regulation of the Wnt/beta-Catenin pathway in the cytoplasm. In the present study I have performed a combined genetic analysis of Conductin and Axin in the mouse. To this end I have deleted the Conductin gene by homologous recombination in embryonic stem cells and inserted a reporter gene under the control of the endogenous Conductin promoter. I could show that the simultaneous loss of Conductin and one Axin allele (Con-/-;Ax+/-) causes Holoprosencephaly (HPE), which is characterized by severe craniofacial and forebrain defects in the mouse. The detailed analysis of the mutant mice reveals a genetic interaction of Wnt and Shh signaling and defective Shh signaling has previously been implicated in the formation of HPE in human patients. Moreover, complete absence of both Conductin and Axin (Con-/-;Ax-/-) leads to loss of the anterior-posterior axis early in development and death of the embryos after E6.5. The present study exemplifies how differences in the biological function of two mechanistically redundant factors can be studied by genetic means in the mouse.

Les carences précoces en donneurs de méthyles (vitamines B9 et B12 notamment) sont à l’origine de malformations congénitales. Elles exercent un effet délétère sur le développement du cerveau et sont associées à une augmentation de l’incidence de pathologies neurologiques et neurodégénératives à l’âge adulte. Un modèle murin de carence en donneurs de méthyles, le modèle MDD, a été développé au laboratoire et a permis d’étudier la réponse à cette carence, et de mettre en évidence des altérations de la structure cérébrale et des défauts de locomotion chez les ratons issus de mères carencées. Ce comportement est contrôlé par le cervelet, dont on sait que le développement est altéré chez les MDD. En revanche, les mécanismes moléculaires mis en jeu dans la réponse à la carence dans le cervelet restent peu compris. Afin d’étudier les gènes et voies de signalisation dérégulés chez les MDD, nous avons réalisé l’étude du transcriptome du cervelet des ratons carencés. Puis, nous nous sommes intéressés aux modifications épigénomiques engendrées par la carence en analysant leur miRnome et les modifications des protéines histones dans leur cervelet. Nous avons mis en évidence des altérations des voies wnt, dans le cervelet des femelles carencées, qui n’ont pas été retrouvées chez les mâles. De même, de nombreux gènes impliqués dans le développement et les fonctions synaptiques sont dérégulés chez les femelles. Nous avons aussi montré des variations de plusieurs marques d’acétylation et de méthylation des histones chez les MDD. Enfin, de manière plus ciblée, nous avons mis en évidence un miARN dont l’expression diminue dans le cervelet des ratons carencés : miR-344-5p. Nos premiers résultats semblent indiquer qu’il est impliqué dans le contrôle de la mort cellulaire. Ces résultats montrent l’implication de dérégulations globales dépendantes du sexe mais aussi des altérations ciblées dans la réponse à la carence. Une amélioration de la compréhension de ces mécanismes moléculaires nous permettra de mieux appréhender le lien qui existe entre carence précoce en donneurs de méthyles, développement cérébral et incidence de pathologies à l’âge adulte / Early methyl-donor deficiencies (e.g. B9 and B12 vitamins) can lead to congenital disabilities. They are behind developmental abnormalities of the brain, and are associated with the development of neurological and neurodegenerative diseases at adulthood as well. In the lab, we developed a methyl donor deficiency rat model called MDD. It has allowed us to show structure alterations of several brain areas and also locomotor coordination impairments in pups born from dams fed a MDD diet. Cerebellum is the brain structure involved in the control of this behavior and we know its development is delayed in MDD. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying methyl donor deficiency still remain misunderstood in this brain structure. In order to study genes and signaling pathways dysregulated in MDD, we performed transcriptomic analysis of deficient pups’ cerebellum. We also led miRnome analyses and histone modifications investigations with the purpose of understanding epigenomic modifications caused by MDD. We showed alterations of wnt signaling pathways in female’s cerebellum which we did not find in males. We also found that several genes involved in cerebellum’s development and synaptic function were dysregulated in females. Regarding epigenomic regulation, acetylation and methylation of histone marks were also modified in females. Finally, we chose miR-344-5p as an interesting candidate to study more specific epigenetic modifications. Its expression is decreased in MDD and it seems to be involved in cellular death control, according to our first results. These results shed light on global dysregulations, in a sex-dependent manner, as a consequence of methyl donor deficiency but also more specific alterations. A better understanding of the molecular mechanisms taking place in response to MDD could help us to link methyl donor deficiency, brain development and neurodegenerative pathologies occurrence at adulthood

Les carcinomes de la cortico-surrénale (CCS) sont des tumeurs de mauvais pronostic et les thérapies sont encore limitées. La chirurgie reste à ce jour le seul traitement efficace. La compréhension des mécanismes de la tumorigenèse cortico-surrénalienne et l'identification des gènes et des voies de signalisation impliquées sont nécessaires pour identifier de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques. Ces dernières années, plusieurs études de génomique ont été réalisées sur des cohortes indépendantes de CCS et ont mis en évidence l'existence de deux groupes de CCS ayant des profils d’expression génique particuliers et associés à des pronostics de survie différents. Il a aussi été identifié de fréquentes mutations touchant les gènes TP53 et CTNNB1 (β-caténine). De plus, l'activation aberrante de la voie WNT/β-caténine est associée au groupe des CCS agressifs. Enfin, des analyses des altérations génomiques par puce SNP et le séquençage de l’exome de cohortes de CCS a permis de préciser les fréquences des mutations de TP53 (~18%) et CTNNB1 (~14%) mais a aussi mis en évidence des mutations et des délétions homozygotes au niveau du gène ZNRF3 (Zinc And Ring Finger 3) dans environs 20% des CCS. ZNRF3 a été montré comme jouant un rôle de régulateur négatif de la voie WNT/β-caténine. Par conséquent, la voie de signalisation WNT/β-caténine est la voie la plus fréquemment altérée dans les CCS (~40%). L’objectif de mon projet était d’étudier comment l’activation constitutive de la voie WNT/β-caténine pouvait participer à la tumorigenèse cortico-surrénalienne, puis d'essayer de comprendre plus spécifiquement le rôle des altérations de ZNRF3 dans le développement et/ou l'agressivité des CCS. En combinant des analyses de transcriptomes de modèles cellulaires et de cohortes de CCS, nous avons établi une signature robuste cortico-surrénalienne de l'activation de la voie WNT/β-caténine. Parmi les gènes de cette signature, nous avons montré que AFF3 était une cible transcriptionnelle de la β-caténine et qu'il était capable de transmettre en partie les effets oncogèniques de la voie WNT/β-caténine dans les cellules cortico-surrénaliennes. En effet, son invalidation entraîne l'apoptose et diminue la prolifération des cellules cortico-surrénaliennes à l'image de l'invalidation de la β-caténine. La surexpression d’AFF3 altère l’organisation des speckles nucléaires et la localisation de CDK9/CyclinT1 impliqués respectivement dans l'épissage des ARNm et la transcription des gènes. ZNRF3 est le gène le plus fréquemment altéré dans les CCS alors qu'il l'est très peu dans les autres types de cancers. ZNRF3 est une E3 ubiquitin ligase qui entraîne l'internalisation et la dégradation des récepteurs Frizzleds de la voie WNT. Nous avons montré que ZNRF3 agit bien comme un gène suppresseur de tumeur dans les cellules cortico-surénaliennes humaines H295R. En effet la surexpression de ZNRF3 diminue la prolifération et augmente l’apoptose cellulaire de ces cellules. Nous avons aussi montré qu'à l'image d'autres régulateurs négatifs de la voie WNT comme AXIN2, ZNRF3 est un gène cible de la voie WNT/β-caténine dans la corticosurrénale. De manière intéressante, les altérations du gène ZNRF3 ne sont pas retrouvées dans des tumeurs présentant une forte activation de la voie de signalisation WNT/β-caténine, suggérant l'implication d'autres voies de signalisation. Nous avons identifié des partenaires protéiques de ZNRF3 par des expériences d'immunoprécipitation / spectrométrie de masse. Nous avons montré que ZNRF3 interagit avec la sous unité catalytique de la pompe NA+/K+, ATP1A1. Cette interaction altère le fonctionnement de la pompe NA+/K+ conduisant à des modifications du flux de Ca2+ intracellulaire. L'ensemble de ces travaux a permis de mieux comprendre comment la voie WNT/β-caténine participe à l'agressivité des cancers de la corticosurrénale et de montrer qu'AFF3 est essentiel pour les effets oncogéniques de cette voie. (...) / Adrenocortical carcinomas are rare tumors with poor prognostic and limited therapy. Up to now, surgery remains the only curative therapy. A better understanding of tumor biology and molecular prognostic factors would help to select relevant therapeutic targets and to develop innovative therapeutic strategies. In the last years, different genomic studies on independent cohorts of ACC have identified two subgroups of cancers with two distinguished profiles of genes expression and two different survival rates. Frequents alterations of CTNNB1 and TP53 are identified in ACC. Moreover, aberrant activation of WNT/β-catenin pathway in ACC is associated with lower overall survival. Using a combination of genomic approaches, we and others have recently analyzed independent cohorts of ACC. These works confirmed recurrent alterations in CTNNB1 (~14%) and TP53 (~18%), but also revealed new loci not previously reported to be altered in ACC. Strikingly, ZNRF3 (zinc and ring finger 3) was the most frequently altered gene (~20%). ZNRF3 encodes a protein that acts as a negative regulator of Wnt/β-catenin pathway. The Wnt/β-catenin pathway represents the most frequently altered pathway in ACC (~40%). The aim of my project was to study how the aberrant activation of WNT/β-catenin pathway could participate to adrenal tumorigenesis and then to identify more specifically the role of ZNRF3 alterations in development/aggressiness of ACC. By a combination of transcriptomic analysis on two cohorts of ACC and on H295R adrenocortical cells, we identified a list of genes whose expression is correlated to the WNT/β-catenin activation. Among these genes, we show that AFF3 is essential to mediate the effect of activation the WNT/β-catenin pathway in adrenocortical cancer. Indeed, AFF3 is a direct target gene of β-catenin and its silencing in H295R adrenocortical cells induces a decreased cell proliferation and an increased apoptosis similar to that induced by β-catenin silencing. Moreover, AFF3 overexpression altered the structure of nuclear speckles and the localization of CDK9/CyclinT1, which are respectively involved in mRNA splicing and transcription. ZNRF3 (zinc and ring finger 3) was the most frequently altered gene (20%) in ACC. ZNRF3 had never been frequently associated with other tumour types. ZNRF3 encodes a protein that had been described as cell-surface transmembrane E3 ubiquitin ligases, acting as negative regulators of Wnt/β-catenin signaling, by promoting the degradation of Wnt ligand receptors (Frizzled receptors). We show that ZNRF3 act as a tumor suppressor gene in adrenocortical cell line H295R. Indeed the overexpression of ZNRF3 decreases cell proliferation and increases apoptosis. We demonstrate also that ZNRF3 is a target gene of WNT/β-catenin pathway. ZNRF3 alterations have less effect on expression of WNT/β-catenin target genes than CTNNB1 mutations in ACC. Moreover, our results with ZNRF3 overexpression in H295R adrenocortical cells suggest that ZNRF3 is also involved in βcatenin independant-pathway(s) to mediate its effects on apoptosis. Using mass spectrometry analysis, we identified that ZNRF3 interacts with ATP1A1 (ATPase Na+/K+ Transporting Subunit Alpha 1), affecting the activity of the Na+/K+ ATPase pump in adrenocortical cells. These results provide a better understanding of the biological process of WNT/βcatenin pathway activation in ACC with AFF3 as new target of this pathway. Moreover, our data provide insight into the tumor suppressor role of ZNRF3 in ACC and uncovers an additional role of ZNRF3 on Na+/K+ ATPase pump activity.

Neueste Arbeiten zeigen, dass die Selbsterneuerung und Pluripotenz von Stammzellen durch hochkonservierte Signalwege kontrolliert werden. Störungen dieser Prozesse verursachen Tumoren, die von Zellen mit stammzellähnlichen Eigenschaften ausgehen, den sog. Krebsstammzellen. Diese Arbeit zeigt, dass erhöhte Wnt/beta-Catenin- und erniedrigte Bmp-Signalgebung eine wichtige Rolle in der Entstehung humaner Plattenepithel-Karzinome der Speicheldrüsen spielen. Es wurde ein Mausmodell hergestellt, bei dem die Aktivierung der Wnt/beta-Catenin und der Verlust der Bmp-Signalgebung ebenfalls Speicheldrüsenkarzinome verursachen. Die Speicheldrüsen-Tumoren der Maus enthielten eine erhöhte Zahl von CD24+CD29+-Stammzellen, von denen bereits 500 Zellen transplantierbare Tumoren in NOD/SCID-Mäusen induzierten, d. h. dass sie Krebsstammzellen darstellen. Die Veränderung nur eines Signalweges, Wnt/beta-Catenin oder Bmp allein, war nicht tumorigen, resultierte aber in einer erhöhten Anzahl von CD24+CD29+-Stammzellen in der Speicheldrüse und einer fünffach schnelleren Geweberegeneration nach Verwundung. Die Krebsstammzellen der Speicheldrüsen zeigten eine erhöhte Expression von Pluripotenzgenen und globale Veränderungen von trimethyliertem Lysin 4 und 27 des Histons 3. Diese Veränderungen korrelieren häufig mit einer Zunahme aktiven und einer Abnahme repressiven Chromatins. Die Krebsstammzellen wuchsen in vitro als undifferenzierte Salisphären und konnten durch Inhibierung des Wnt/beta-Catenin-Signalweges in drüsenartige Strukturen differenziert werden. Dieser Prozess war von repressivem Chromatin abhängig, da DNA-Methylierungs- oder Histon-Deazetylase-Inhibitoren den ursprünglichen Krebsstammzell-Status wieder reaktivieren konnten. Diese Arbeit zeigt, dass ein aktiver Wnt/beta-Catenin-Signalweg die Transformation von normalen Stammzellen zu Krebsstammzellen durch einen epigenetischen Mechanismus fördert. Die Ergebnisse eröffnen neue Strategien für die Tumortherapie beim Menschen. / Little is known about the processes by which cancer stem cells arise in the different tissues. Our analysis of aggressive squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) of the salivary gland in human patients suggested a link to the Wnt/beta-catenin and Bmp signaling systems. Using a genetically modified mouse strain in which Wnt signaling is up-regulated and Bmp is suppressed, we found that Wnt/beta-catenin promotes the transformation of normal stem cells into cancer stem cells through an epigenetic mechanism. Mouse SCCs of the salivary gland contained high numbers of CD24+CD29+ cancer stem cells. As few as 500 of these cells sufficed to cause tumors when transplanted into NOD/SCID mice. Mice in which only one of the signaling systems was altered had higher numbers of stem cells in the salivary gland, more efficient tissue regeneration, and no apparent tumors. We discovered that the difference of normal compared to cancer stem cells in the salivary gland is an up-regulation of specific pluripotency genes, e.g. Dppa5, as well as global changes in trimethylated Lysine 4 and 27 of histone 3. This indicates an increase of active chromatin and a decrease in the repressive form, which suggests a mechanistic explanation for the change of cell fate. Cancer stem cells of the salivary gland grew as non-adherent spheres and retained the capacity for differentiation if beta-catenin is inhibited. This depended on repressive chromatin, as shown by the fact that 5-azacytidine or HDAC inhibitors restored stemness. Our data opens new strategies for future cancer therapies in humans.

Introdução: Em crianças das regiões Sul e Sudeste do Brasil há uma incidência elevada de tumores adrenocorticais (TAC). Anormalidades da ?-catenina tem sido encontradas em TAC em adultos e sugerem a ativação da via Wnt/ -catenina nestes tumores. No entanto, não há estudos avaliando o papel desta via em casuísticas de TAC pediátricos. Objetivos: Avaliar o papel da via Wnt/catenina e mutações do gene CTNNB1 na tumorigênese adrenocortical pediátrica. Indivíduos, Material e Métodos: Foram avaliados 62 pacientes pediátricos com TAC oriundos de dois centros de referência. Controles: córtex adrenal de indivíduos jovens com morte acidental. Avaliou-se a presença de mutação nos genes TP53 e CTNNB1. A expressão de genes da via Wnt (CTNNB1, o ligante WNT4, os inibidores SFRP1, DKK3 e AXIN1, o fator de transcrição TCF7 e os genes-alvo MYC e WISP2) foi avaliada por qPCR, utilizando-se o método de 2-Ct. Adicionalmente, a expressão de proteínas da via Wnt/-catenina e P53 foi avaliada por imunoistoquímica. Avaliou-se a relação entre possíveis anormalidades moleculares com o fenótipo clínico e o desfecho. Resultados: A sobrevida geral foi maior em pacientes menores que 5 anos de idade (p<0.0001) e em pacientes com estágios tumorais menos avançados (p<0.0001). A mutação P53 p.R337H foi encontrada em 87% dos pacientes e não se associou com características clinicopatológicas ou desfecho. Mutações do gene CTNNB1 foram encontradas em 4/62 (6%) TAC, todos carreadores da mutação P53 p.R337H. Houve associação entre óbito e presença de mutações do gene CTNNB1 (p=0,02). Acúmulo difuso da -catenina foi observado em 71% dos TAC, a maioria sem mutações do CTNNB1. Comparados a adrenais normais, os TAC apresentaram aumento da expressão do RNAm de CTNNB1 (p=0.008) e diminuição da expressão de genes inibidores da via Wnt: DKK3 (p<0.0001), SFRP1 (p=0.05) e AXIN1 (p=0.04). Com relação aos genes-alvo da via Wnt/-catenina, TAC apresentaram expressão aumentada de WISP2 e baixa expressão de MYC. Maior sobrevida geral foi associada à expressão baixa de SFRP1 (p=0.01), WNT4 (p=0.004) e TCF7 (p<0.01). Conclusões: Em TAC pediátricos, mutações somáticas ativadoras do gene CTNNB1 são pouco freqüentes e parecem estar associadas à maior ocorrência de óbito. Mesmo na ausência de mutações do gene CTNNB1, estes tumores apresentaram acúmulo de -catenina e do gene-alvo WISP2 e expressão reduzida de inibidores da via Wnt (DKK3, SFRP1 e AXIN1). Estes dados demonstram evidências de anormalidades na via Wnt/-catenina em TAC pediátricos, mesmo na ausência de mutações do gene CTNNB1. É provável que outros eventos genéticos afetando a via Wnt/-catenina estejam envolvidos na tumorigênese adrenocortical pediátrica / Context: CTNNB1 mutations and activation of Wnt/-catenin pathway are frequent in adult adrenocortical tumors (ACTs) but data on childhood ACTs are lacking. Objective: To investigate Wnt/-catenin pathway abnormalities and CTNNB1 mutations in childhood ACTs. Patients and Methods: Clinicopathological findings and outcome of 62 childhood ACTs patients were analyzed regarding to CTNNB1/ -catenin mutations and to the expression of Wnt-related genes (CTNNB1, a Wnt ligand: WNT4, Wnt inhibitors: SFRP1, DKK3 and AXIN1, a transcription factor: TCF7, and target genes: MYC and WISP2) by qPCR and immunohistochemistry. Results: Overall survival (OS) was higher in patients younger than 5 years (p<0.0001) and associated with less advanced tumoral stage (p<0.0001). The p.R337H P53 mutation, found in 87% of the patients, was not associated with clinicopathological findings or outcome. CTNNB1 activating mutations were found in only 4/62 ACTs (6%), all of them harboring TP53 mutation. There was association between the presence of CTNNB1 mutation and death (p=0.02). Diffuse -catenin accumulation was found in 71% of ACTs, most of them without CTNNB1 mutation. CTNNB1 mutated ACTs presented weak/moderate -catenin accumulation. Compared to normal adrenals, ACTs presented increased expression of CTNNB1 (p=0.008) and underexpression of Wnt inhibitor genes: DKK3 (p<0.0001), SFRP1 (p=0.05) and AXIN1 (p=0.04). With regards to Wnt/-catenin target genes, ACTs presented lower expression of MYC but increased expression of WISP2. Higher overall survival was associated with underexpression of SFRP1 (p=0.01), WNT4 (p=0.004) and TCF7 (p<0.01). Conclusions: In childhood ACTs, CTNNB1 mutations are rare and appear to be associated with poor prognosis. Regardless of CTNNB1 mutations, these tumors presented reduced expression of Wnt inhibitor genes (DKK3, SFRP1 and AXIN1) and increased expression of CTNNB1 and a target gene, WISP2. Thus, besides CTNNB1 mutations, additional genetic events affecting the Wnt/-catenin pathway may be involved in childhood adrenocortical tumorigenesis.

Meduloblastoma é um tumor embrionário maligno e invasivo do cerebelo, com manifestação preferencial em crianças, sendo predominantemente de diferenciação neuronal e tendência natural a metastatização por via liquórica. O gene da b-catenina (CTNNB1) está localizado no cromossomo 3p22-p21-3, sendo seu produto uma proteína citoplasmática de 92 kDa, envolvida na adesão celular e na transdução de sinal durante a embriogênese e morfogênese tecidual. A fosforilação da b-catenina é necessária para sua degradação, evitando a associação com o fator de transcrição Tcf (fator de célula T), responsável pela ativação de genes, cujos produtos promovem a proliferação celular. Estudos têm demonstrado a presença da b-catenina no núcleo das células de tumorais, um achado inesperado, pois, tratando-se de uma proteína envolvida na adesão celular, sua expressão seria esperada na membrana celular. Subseqüentemente foram descritas mutações no exon 3 do gene da b-catenina, envolvendo sítios de fosforilação. Este estudo teve como objetivo analisar em meduloblastomas: mutações no gene CTNNB1, o acúmulo da proteína b-catenina, bem como correlacionar ambos os achados entre si e com o tipo histológico e analisar os níveis de expressão relativa de genes envolvidos na via WNT (CTNNB1, AXIN1, WNT1 e APC) e correlaciona-los com o tipo histológico, idade e dados de mutação de CTNNB1 e acúmulo de b-catenina. As amostras de DNA foram extraídas de 67 casos de meduloblastomas. A análise de alterações no exon 3 de CTNNB1 foi realizada pela reação em cadeia da polimerase (PCR) e seqüenciamento direto. A expressão da b-catenina foi analisada pela técnica de imunohistoquímica (IHQ). As análises de expressão relativa de CTNNB1, AXIN1, WNT1 e APC foram realizadas pelo método de PCR quantitativo em tempo real (RQ-PCR) em 31 amostras de meduloblastomas. A freqüência de mutações do exon 3 de CTNBB1 foi de 15%. Foram identificadas 6 mutações missense e em heterozigose em 10 casos: troca de G por A (Asp32Asn) em um caso, troca de C por A (Ser34Tir) em quatro casos, troca de C por G (Ser33Cis) em dois casos, troca G por A (Gli34Arg) em um caso, troca de G por T (Gli34Glu) em um caso e troca de C por A (Ser37Tir) em um caso. Foi observada uma imunorreatividade de ß-catenina no núcleo em 36,4% dos casos analisados. No citoplasma, a ß-catenina estava presente em todos os casos. Não houve correlação entre o tipo histológico e os dados qualitativos e semi-quantitativos de IHQ. Também não houve correlação entre o tipo histológico com os achados de mutações. Não foi observada diferença nos níveis de expressão dos genes CTNNB1, AXIN1 e APC nos meduloblastomas em relação ao tecidos cerebelares não tumorais. Na análise de expressão relativa e a classificação histológica, apenas APC apresentou diferença entre o tipo clássico com o desmoplásico. Não houve diferença dos níveis de expressão relativa em nenhum dos genes com relação à idade do paciente. A presença de mutações de CTNNB1 não afetou a expressão relativa de CTNNB1 e APC. Por outro lado, AXIN1 apresentou uma maior expressão relativa nos casos com mutação. APC apresentou uma menor expressão quanto maior o acúmulo de b-catenina no núcleo. Os dados indicam que outras proteínas da via WNT podem estar envolvidas no acúmulo de b-catenina nas células de meduloblastomas, além do envolvimento de outras diferentes vias. / Medulloblastoma is a malignant invasive embryonal tumor of the cerebellum with a preferential manifestation in children, being predominantly with neuronal differentiation, and a natural tendency to metastasize through spinal fluid pathways. b-catenin gene (CTNNB1) is localized at chromosome 3p22-p21.3 and codifies a cytoplasmatic protein of 92 kDa, involved in cellular adhesion and signal transduction during embriogenesis and tissue morphogenesis. b-catenin phosphorylation is necessary for its degradation, avoiding association with Tcf (T cell factor), responsible for activation of some genes, whose products promote cellular proliferation. Studies have demonstrated the presence of b-catenin in the nucleus of tumoral cells, an unexpected finding because it is a protein involved in cellular adhesion and its normal localization is at the cellular membrane. Subsequentially, mutations in the phosphorylation sites, localized at the exon 3 of b-catenin gene, have been described. The aims of this study were to analyze in medulloblastomas: CTNNB1 gene mutations, the protein b-catenin accumulation, as well as to correlate both findings between them and with the histological type and to analyze the relative expression levels of genes involved in the WNT pathway (CTNNB1, AXIN1, WNT1 and APC). DNA samples were extracted from 67 cases of medulloblastoma. Alterations of CTNNB1 exon 3 were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and direct sequencing. The expression of the protein b-catenin was assessed by immunohistochemistry (IHC). The relative expression analyses of CTNNB1, AXIN1, WNT1 and APC were determined by quantitative real time PCR (RQ-PCR) in 31 medulloblastoma samples. The frequency of CTNBB1 exon 3 mutations in the CTNNB1 was 15%. We identified six missense heterozygous mutations in ten cases: a G to A change (Asp32Asn) in one case, a C to A change (Ser34Tyr) in four cases, a C to G change (Ser33Cys) in two cases, a G to A change (Gly34Arg) in one case and a G to T change (Gly34Glu) in one case and a C to A change (Ser37Tyr) in one case. It was observed b-catenin immunoreactivity in the nucleus in 36.4% of all cases analyzed. In the cytoplasm, the ß-catenin was present in all the cases. No correlation between histological type and IHQ qualitative and semi-quantitative. Also, there was no correlation between histological type and mutations. No difference in the expression levels of the genes CTNNB1, AXIN1 and APC were observed in medulloblastomas in relation to normal cerebellum samples by QT-PCR analysis. In the analysis of relative expression and the histological classification, only APC presented significant difference between classic and desmoplastic type. There was no difference of the relative expression levels of any gene with the patient?s age. The presence of CTNNB1 mutations did not affect the relative expression of CTNNB1 and APC. On the other hand, AXIN1 presented a higher relative expression in the cases with mutation. APC expression level was lower when b-catenin nuclear accumulation was higher. Our data indicate that other proteins of WNT pathway can be involved in b-catenin accumulation in medulloblastoma cells, as well as the involvement of other different pathways.