Lo scopo della tesi è quello di mettere a confronto, attraverso la metodologia comparativa, alcuni istituti giuridici di riduzione dell’orario lavorativo, volti al perseguimento della salvaguardia dei posti di lavoro, in Italia, Francia e Germania. Nel primo capitolo viene trattata la disciplina normativa italiana dei contratti di solidarietà difensiva, destinati alla preservazione dei posti di lavoro in luogo dei licenziamenti e dei contratti di solidarietà espansiva, preposti alla creazione di posti di lavoro, dalla L. n. 863/1984 fino al D. Lgs. n. 148/2015. Nel secondo capitolo ci si sofferma sul sistema di sicurezza sociale francese, sui contratti di solidarietà difensiva francesi, gli “accords de maintien dans l’emploi” e i contratti di solidarietà espansiva, gli “accords de développement de l’emploi”, così come modificati dalla L. n. 1.088 del 2016. Nel terzo capitolo infine si delinea una panoramica degli strumenti anti-crisi tedeschi di riduzione dell’orario di lavoro, quali la "Kurzarbeit", l’"Arbeitszeitkorridor" e l’ "Arbeitszeitkonto", soffermandosi sulla disciplina della riduzione d’orario alla luce della giurisprudenza della Corte di Giustizia europea. Il lavoro si conclude sulla base di quanto esposto, con una riflessione attraverso l’analisi economica del diritto circa l’efficacia o meno di tali misure anti-crisi di riduzione dell’orario di lavoro. / The aim of the PhD thesis is to compare, through the comparative methodology, some legal tools of the reduction of working hours, aimed at pursuing the safeguarding of job’s places, in Italy, France and Germany. The first chapter shows the Italian legal framework of the "defensive solidarity contracts", and "expansive solidarity contracts", by Law n. 863/1984 up to the D. Lgs. n. 148/2015. The second chapter focuses on the French social security system, on "French defensive solidarity contracts", called "accords de maintien dans l’emploi" and the "expansive solidarity contracts", called "accords de développement de l’emploi", as amended by Law n. 1.088 of 2016. The third chapter focuses on German anti-crisis instruments of working hours reduction, such as the "Kurzarbeit", the "Arbeitszeitkorridor" and the "Arbeitszeitkonto", and their legal framework related to the jurisprudence of the European Court of Justice. The PhD thesis ends with a reflection regarding the effectiveness of these anti-crisis measures of the reduction of working hours, thanks to the economic analysis of law.

This thesis deals with the issue of working time, as one of the main aspects of work. The goal of this thesis is to analyze the working time in concrete marketing company. The theoretical part introduces the issue and summarizes the basic knowledge of literature. In the practical part the company system of flexible working hours is being analyzed in detail. The aim is to analyze the behavior of employees in relation to working time and to recommend appropriate further steps for the company. This analysis should be useful particularly for managers and for HR department.

Cette thèse porte sur le développement du travail « en 12 heures » des infirmières et des aides-soignantes de l’hôpital public depuis une dizaine d’années. Elle l’envisage comme un dispositif révélateur des transformations de l’action publique et du travail. Permettant à la fois de dégager des économies pour les directions et de condenser le nombre de journées travaillées pour les soignants, ce mode d’organisation du temps de travail cristallise les enjeux actuels de l’institution hospitalière, entre rationalisation gestionnaire, intensification du travail et aspiration des soignants à se réapproprier une vie « à eux » en dehors de l’hôpital. Défini en 2002 comme une dérogation à la durée maximale du travail dans les cas où « les contraintes de continuité du service public l’exigent en permanence », la normalisation du recours au dispositif vient parallèlement nourrir un écart grandissant entre droit et pratiques. Alliant sociologie du travail, sociologie de l’action publique et sociologie du droit, la thèse se présente comme une ethnographie multi-située du travail en 12 heures, interrogeant les conditions d’émergence du dispositif et les appropriations/retraductions qu’en font les différents acteurs (réformateurs, intermédiaires du droit, soignants). La thèse montre ainsi que, à côté de l’idée d’une amélioration de la qualité du service et de l’épanouissement de soignants (qui y trouvent un équilibre entre travail et vie privée), le dispositif s’accommode de l’intensification du travail et fait le jeu de la rationalisation à l’œuvre à l’hôpital. / This thesis focuses on the development of 12 hours-shift work of nurses and nurses’ aides in public hospital since a decade. It considers the program as an indicator of public policy and work transformations. Drawing savings for the administrative heads of hospital and reducing the number of working days for nurses, this working time organization crystallises current issues of public hospital : new public management, intensification of work, aspiration of work/life balance of nurses. Defined in 2002 as an express exception of the maximum legal working time (due to the necessity of public service continuity), the standardization of the use of the program contributes to increase the gap between norms and practices. At the intersection of sociology of work, sociology of public policy and sociology of law, the thesis is based on a multi-sited 12 hours-shift work ethnography. It examines the conditions of emergence of the program and the way actors appropriate it. The thesis shows that beside the idea of an improvement of the service quality and the nurses’ satisfaction, the program goes with the intensification of work and contributes to the rationalization of hospital.

This essay stresses the questions regarding whether or not the Swedish implementation of the European Union’s directive 2003/88/EG should be considered sufficient enough to fulfil the purpose of the scope of the directive. The essay will also consider the gender equality perspective regarding how different solutions concerning the organization of working time within two different collective agreements can give workers more or less favourable opportunities, amongst men and women.  The study of the Swedish legislation in relation to the directive shows that the way the directive has been implemented into the Swedish judicial system must be interpreted so that it is compatible with the purpose set out by the European Union. Despite this, the study spots an issue. The issue regarding how the regulations in both the directive, but also throughout the Swedish law are enunciated. The way the regulations are phrased bring on questions considering how far the European Union should be allowed to go regarding their right to control the Member States when it comes to legislation within their own countries. This raise the question regarding the interpretation of the autonomy of the Member States. The study also shows that the regulations within the collective agreements does not, alone, indicate a difference regarding more or less favourable conditions for men or women. Despite this, the study did show a difference regarding how the collective agreements emphasize different characteristics of the regulations as the most important ones. Which collective agreement provides the most favourable conditions regarding the promotion of equal rights for men and women must therefore be answered by every single individual themselves. Based on how they define gender equality and how the characteristics of the different agreements promote those aspects of gender equality.

This study provides an analysis of the benefits of adding solar PV and batteries to industries, both examing the grid-connected and off-grid cases.The electricity demand of 28 companies in Falkenberg, Sweden, whose industries require high voltages for electricity, were studied. We examined the extent to which these companies can depend on energy generated from photovoltaic cells and stored in batteries, as well as the impact of peak loads and the possibility of eliminating peaks when operating off-grid.The data for each of these cases were analyzed for companies to determine the energy that can be generated from photovoltaic cells on-site, and then take advantage of this energy directly and store the surplus in batteries to reduce dependence on the grid or reduce this dependence to a minimum, and study the role of the battery. We obtained interesting results and reliable systems during this study, as we noticed the effect of changing working hours in these companies in proportion to the times of energy production during the period of daily solar radiation.By studying the main load models in these companies and using the results and data analysis, it was noted that batteries can be a reliable solution, in which the energy generated from solar cells is used directly and the excess electricity is stored in the batteries later, and we noted the possibility of operating the entire system off-grid, which was found realistic if the company would have been located in Egypt. .

Yes / This article focuses on the work-life ‘balance’ challenges of those who work in organisations that operate beyond standard hours. The concept of work-life articulation is utilised to examine the experiences and practicalities of attempting to reconcile the, often competing, demands of employment and family life. Qualitative research was conducted in two private sector businesses and one third sector organisation in the UK during the onset of the 2008 financial crisis. The findings reveal increasing competitive pressures, efficiency drives and work intensification. ‘Business needs’ are prioritised over care responsibilities, and in the private sector organisations there is declining flexible working with a reassertion of the management prerogative. This article contributes to current debates over work-life ‘balance’ and highlights variable, changeable and unpredictable working time arrangements that permeate non-standard hours, which creates additional complexities and challenges for family time schedules and routines. / ESRC

Phénomène émergent, l’usage des réseaux sociaux en ligne et des outils informatiques mobiles croît de façon exponentielle et tend à se généraliser. Leur développement envahit peu à peu tous les espaces de vie, marquant plus particulièrement celui des entreprises, le monde du travail. La question du rapport entre les nouvelles technologies et le droit du travail n'est pas nouvelle, elle date de l'introduction de l'informatique dans la sphère sociale, notamment dans les relations collectives. Pour autant, l'examen de la doctrine et de la jurisprudence récentes témoigne largement de nouvelles problématiques juridiques quant à l'utilisation de moyens de communication sans limite de temps et d'espace. L’usage d’internet, et plus spécifiquement des réseaux sociaux dans l’entreprise déséquilibre les relations de travail en confrontant le pouvoir de l’employeur aux droits et libertés émergents et intimement liés aux nouvelles pratiques salariales. Ces nouveaux rapports invitent à remodeler la législation sociale pour une garantie des droits et libertés qui se veut effective. Les réseaux sociaux d’entreprises interrogent enfin sur le renouvellement du dialogue social dans l’entreprise dans une société démocratique de l’information. Brouillant les anciens cadres de référence, les nouvelles technologies de la communication invitent à une réflexion sur le devenir du droit du travail. / An emerging phenomenon, online social network and mobile apps usage has increased exponentially and is becoming widespread. Their exponential adoption offers a multitude of possibilities which is gradually invading living spaces, and in particular the professional world. The link between new technologies and employment law is not really new and dates from the arrival of IT (Information Technology) into the professional world, especially in collective relationships. However, recent doctrine and jurisprudence examinations surface new legal issues in regards to the use of new communication means that don’t have any time and space limits. Internet usage, and more precisely social network usage within companies, destabilises employment laws and leads to a confrontation between employer rights and the employees’ emerging rights and freedoms according to new practices. Companies’ relationship to social networks resurface questions about the renewal of industrial relationships inside a company that belongs to a democratic information-based society. Reshaping old frameworks, and new communication technologies encourages a wider reconsideration of future employment laws.

Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar os efeitos de variações no protocolo de ativação e envelhecimento acelerado em algumas propriedades de cimentos resinosos de polimerização dual. Adicionalmente, investigaram-se os efeitos da variação da temperatura ambiente e envelhecimento acelerado no tempo de trabalho e tempo de presa dos cimentos quando ativados exclusivamente pela reação química. As propriedades avaliadas foram o grau de conversão, determinado por espectrometria no infravermelho com transformada de Fourier (FTIR-ATR), microdureza Knoop, expressa em KHN, e resistência mecânica à tração expressa em MPa. Os tempos de trabalho e tempos de presa foram determinados por um reômetro oscilatório com controle de temperatura da plataforma de teste estabelecida em 24oC ou 37oC. O envelhecimento acelerado foi determinado pela armazenagem dos cimentos, em suas embalagens originais, e após os testes iniciais, em estufa a 37oC por 12 semanas.A variável de modo de ativação foi determinada em 3 níveis. Os cimentos foram manipulados de acordo com as instruções dos fabricantes e ativados por luz imediatamente (controle), ativados por luz após 10 minutos de reação química no escuro (Exp 1) ou mantidos no escuro por 15 minutos, permitindo a reação química, mas sem fotoativação (Exp 2). Os cimentos tiveram suas propriedades avaliadas em função desses diferentes modos de ativação, antes e após o envelhecimento acelerado. Cimento exclusivamente ativado pela reação química foi empregado como controle quando necessário. Os diversos resultados podem ser resumidos em alguns aspectos de interesse. O tempo de trabalho e o tempo de presa de todos cimentos foram afetados significantemente pela temperatura e envelhecimento (p<0.05). O aumento da temperatura acelerou os tempos de trabalho e presa. Os efeitos do envelhecimento foram materiaisdependentes. Alguns materiais apresentaram redução, enquanto outros apresentaram aumento dos tempos de trabalho e presa, independentemente da variação da temperatura. O modo de ativação e envelhecimento afetaram significantemente as propriedades dos cimentos (p<0.05). Em geral, o grau de conversão aumentou com o tempo após a fotoativação. O retardo da fotoativação por 10 minutos causou alterações no grau de conversão, independentemente do envelhecimento, e para alguns produtos somente. O envelhecimento afetou a cinética da reação química de polimerização dos cimentos. Alguns materiais não apresentaram suficiente reação química após o envelhecimento. As propriedades variaram amplamente de acordo com o modo de ativação e produto. O envelhecimento foi a variável que causou alterações mais significantes e com grande implicação na utilização clínica dos produtos. Alguns materiais se tornaram impróprios para uso após o envelhecimento acelerado. / The study aimed to evaluate the effects of curing protocol and accelerated aging on some properties of dual-cure resin cements. Additionally, the effects of different ambient temperature and aging on the working and setting times were investigated when cements were self-cured only. Properties evaluated were degree of conversion as determined by FTIR-ATR spectroscopy, Knoop microhadness as expressed by KHN, and tensile strength as expressed in MPa. Working time and setting time were determined by an oscilating rheometer with controlled temperature stage at either 24oC or 37oC. Accelerated aging was performed by storing the original product kits in an oven at 37oC for 12 weeks after initial testing had been executed. Different curing protocols were established in 3 levels. Cements were manipulated according to the manufacturers instructions and light-activated immediately (control), light-activated after 10 minutes delay of self-curing in the dark (Exp 1), or simply allowed to self-cure for 15 minutes in the dark (Exp 2). Properties were evaluated according to the different curing protocol and both before and after aging. Exclusively self-curing cement was used as control product when appropriate. The results can be summarized in some aspects of interest. The working time and setting time of all products were significantly affected by temperature and aging (p<0.05). Increased temperature resulted in shorter working time and setting time. The effects of aging were material dependent. Some products presented reduced working and setting times, while others behave otherwise, regardless of the temperature. Curing mode and aging significantly affected the properties of the cements (p<0.05). In general, the degree of conversion increased with time after light-activation. The curing delay for 10 minutes caused alterations in the degree of conversion, regardless of aging, for some products, but not all. Aging affected the curing kinectics and general properties of all cements. Some materials did not present sufficient cure after aging. Properties varied widely according to curing protocol and product. Aging was the variable that most affected the products and the most relevant regarding the clinical use of the materials. Some products were deemed improper for clinical use after accelerated aging.

La sovrapposizione fra disposizioni legislative e accordi contrattuali di vario livello caratterizza da sempre la disciplina del tempo di lavoro: la direttiva europea 1993/104 – poi sostituita dalla 2003/88 – autorizza infatti gli Stati membri ad attribuire alla contrattazione collettiva un’ampia capacità derogatoria rispetto alle regole minime introdotte nel medesimo testo normativo, riservando al contempo un ruolo di rilievo all’autonomia individuale. Nucleo centrale della ricerca è l’analisi – effettuata anche in modo comparativo alla luce della disciplina vigente in altri ordinamenti europei – del ruolo attribuito alla contrattazione collettiva e all’autonomia individuale dal d.lgs. n. 66/2003, allo scopo di verificare se il legislatore italiano, nel recepire la direttiva europea sull’orario di lavoro, abbia saputo raggiungere un equilibrio socialmente accettabile tra istanze di flessibilità e di competitività avanzate dalle imprese ed esigenze di stabilità dei lavoratori. / The overlap between law and collective bargaining of various level is typical of working time regulation: in fact, the European directive 1993/104 – replaced by 2003/88 – authorizes collective bargaining to introduce a lot of exceptions to the same normative text, reserving at the meantime a remarkable role to the individual autonomy. The analyses of the role attributed to the collective bargaining and the individual autonomy by legislative degree n. 66/2003 – effected in comparative way too – is the topic of the research; the purpose is to verify if the Italian legislator, implementing working time European directive, has reached an acceptable balance among appeals of flexibility and competitiveness advanced from the enterprises and employees’ demands for stability.

Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar os efeitos de variações no protocolo de ativação e envelhecimento acelerado em algumas propriedades de cimentos resinosos de polimerização dual. Adicionalmente, investigaram-se os efeitos da variação da temperatura ambiente e envelhecimento acelerado no tempo de trabalho e tempo de presa dos cimentos quando ativados exclusivamente pela reação química. As propriedades avaliadas foram o grau de conversão, determinado por espectrometria no infravermelho com transformada de Fourier (FTIR-ATR), microdureza Knoop, expressa em KHN, e resistência mecânica à tração expressa em MPa. Os tempos de trabalho e tempos de presa foram determinados por um reômetro oscilatório com controle de temperatura da plataforma de teste estabelecida em 24oC ou 37oC. O envelhecimento acelerado foi determinado pela armazenagem dos cimentos, em suas embalagens originais, e após os testes iniciais, em estufa a 37oC por 12 semanas.A variável de modo de ativação foi determinada em 3 níveis. Os cimentos foram manipulados de acordo com as instruções dos fabricantes e ativados por luz imediatamente (controle), ativados por luz após 10 minutos de reação química no escuro (Exp 1) ou mantidos no escuro por 15 minutos, permitindo a reação química, mas sem fotoativação (Exp 2). Os cimentos tiveram suas propriedades avaliadas em função desses diferentes modos de ativação, antes e após o envelhecimento acelerado. Cimento exclusivamente ativado pela reação química foi empregado como controle quando necessário. Os diversos resultados podem ser resumidos em alguns aspectos de interesse. O tempo de trabalho e o tempo de presa de todos cimentos foram afetados significantemente pela temperatura e envelhecimento (p<0.05). O aumento da temperatura acelerou os tempos de trabalho e presa. Os efeitos do envelhecimento foram materiaisdependentes. Alguns materiais apresentaram redução, enquanto outros apresentaram aumento dos tempos de trabalho e presa, independentemente da variação da temperatura. O modo de ativação e envelhecimento afetaram significantemente as propriedades dos cimentos (p<0.05). Em geral, o grau de conversão aumentou com o tempo após a fotoativação. O retardo da fotoativação por 10 minutos causou alterações no grau de conversão, independentemente do envelhecimento, e para alguns produtos somente. O envelhecimento afetou a cinética da reação química de polimerização dos cimentos. Alguns materiais não apresentaram suficiente reação química após o envelhecimento. As propriedades variaram amplamente de acordo com o modo de ativação e produto. O envelhecimento foi a variável que causou alterações mais significantes e com grande implicação na utilização clínica dos produtos. Alguns materiais se tornaram impróprios para uso após o envelhecimento acelerado. / The study aimed to evaluate the effects of curing protocol and accelerated aging on some properties of dual-cure resin cements. Additionally, the effects of different ambient temperature and aging on the working and setting times were investigated when cements were self-cured only. Properties evaluated were degree of conversion as determined by FTIR-ATR spectroscopy, Knoop microhadness as expressed by KHN, and tensile strength as expressed in MPa. Working time and setting time were determined by an oscilating rheometer with controlled temperature stage at either 24oC or 37oC. Accelerated aging was performed by storing the original product kits in an oven at 37oC for 12 weeks after initial testing had been executed. Different curing protocols were established in 3 levels. Cements were manipulated according to the manufacturers instructions and light-activated immediately (control), light-activated after 10 minutes delay of self-curing in the dark (Exp 1), or simply allowed to self-cure for 15 minutes in the dark (Exp 2). Properties were evaluated according to the different curing protocol and both before and after aging. Exclusively self-curing cement was used as control product when appropriate. The results can be summarized in some aspects of interest. The working time and setting time of all products were significantly affected by temperature and aging (p<0.05). Increased temperature resulted in shorter working time and setting time. The effects of aging were material dependent. Some products presented reduced working and setting times, while others behave otherwise, regardless of the temperature. Curing mode and aging significantly affected the properties of the cements (p<0.05). In general, the degree of conversion increased with time after light-activation. The curing delay for 10 minutes caused alterations in the degree of conversion, regardless of aging, for some products, but not all. Aging affected the curing kinectics and general properties of all cements. Some materials did not present sufficient cure after aging. Properties varied widely according to curing protocol and product. Aging was the variable that most affected the products and the most relevant regarding the clinical use of the materials. Some products were deemed improper for clinical use after accelerated aging.