<p>This dissertation discusses the theoretical methods for quantum scattering in the context of x-ray scattering from electrons and classical scattering in the context of collisions between Rydberg atoms.</p> <p><br></p> <p>A method for describing non-relativistic x-ray scattering from bound electrons is presented. The approach described incorporates the full spatial dependence of the incident x-ray field and is non-perturbative in the incident x-ray field. The x-ray scattering probability obtained by numerical solution for the case of free-electrons is bench-marked with well known analytical free-electron results.</p> <p><br></p> <p>A recent investigation by Fuchs \emph{et al.} [Nat. Phys. 11, 964 (2015)] revealed an anomalous frequency shift of at least 800 eV in non-linear Compton scattering of high-intensity x-rays by electrons in solid beryllium. The x-ray scattering approach described is used to explore the role of binding energy, band structure, electron-electron correlation and a semi-Compton channel in the frequency shift of scattered x-rays for different scattered angles. The results of the calculation do not exhibit an additional redshift for the scattered x-rays beyond the non-linear Compton shift predicted by the free-electron model. </p> <p><br></p> <p>The interference between Compton scattering and nonlinear Compton scattering from a two-color field in the x-ray regime is theoretically analyzed for bound electrons. A discussion of the underlying phase shifts and the dependence of the interference effect on the polarizations of the incident and outgoing fields are presented. </p> <p><br></p> <p>The problem of using x-ray scattering to image the dynamics of an electron in a bound system is examined. Previous work on imaging electronic wave-packet dynamics with x-ray scattering revealed that the scattering patterns deviate substantially from the notion of instantaneous momentum density of the wave packet. Here we show that the scattering patterns can provide clear insights into the electronic wave packet dynamics if the final state of the scattered electron and the scattered photon momentum are determined simultaneously. The scattering probability is shown to be proportional to the modulus square of the Fourier transform of the instantaneous electronic spatial wave function weighted by the final state of the electron.</p> <p><br></p> <p>Collisional ionization between Rydberg atoms is examined. The dependence of the ionization cross section on the magnitude and the direction of orbital angular momentum of the electrons and the direction of the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector of the electrons is studied. The case of exchange ionization is examined and its dependence on the magnitude of angular momentum of the electrons is discussed.</p> <p><br></p>

No description available.

The ability to quickly develop predictions of the time-to-failure under different loading levels allows designers to choose the best polymeric material for a specific application. Additionally, it helps material producers to design, manufacture, test, and modify a polymeric material more rapidly. In the case of polymeric pipes, previous studies have shown that there are two possible time-dependent failure mechanisms corresponding to ductile and brittle failure. The ductile mechanism is evident at shorter times-to-failure and results from the stretching of the amorphous region under loading and the subsequent plastic deformation. Empirical results show that many high-performance polyethylene (PE) materials do not exhibit the brittle failure mechanism. Hence, it is critical to understand the ductile mechanism and find an approach to predict the corresponding times-to-failure using accelerated means. The aim of this study is to develop an innovative rupture lifetime acceleration protocol for PE pipes which is sensitive to the structure, orientation, and morphology changes introduced by changing processing conditions. To accomplish this task, custom fixtures are developed to admit tensile and hoop burst tests on PE pipes. A pressure modified Eyring flow equation is used to predict the rupture lifetime of PE pipes using the measured mechanical properties under axial tensile and hydrostatic pressure loading in different temperatures and strain rates. In total, the experimental method takes approximately one week to be completed and allows the prediction of pipe lifetimes for service lifetime in excess of 50 years. / Master of Science / Steel, cast and galvanized iron, and asbestos cement (AC) pipelines have been historically used in water management services. However, they often experienced deterioration because of corrosion and encrustation, resulting in 23 to 27 bursts per 100 miles of pipeline in the US per year. Therefore, plastic pipes were developed to carry liquids (water and sewage), gases, etc. The Plastic Pipe Institute (PPI) requires a service life of at least 50-years for plastic pipes. Hence, pipe producers and material suppliers continuously attempt to improve the materials and manufacturing processes used for plastic pipes to increase their service lifetimes. However, there is still no plastic pipe that has been in service for 50 years. Therefore, a few techniques have been developed to accelerate the aging process and to predict if the plastic pipe is able to endure the 50-year lifetime without failure. In this work, a combined experimental and analytical framework is presented to develop accelerated lifetime estimates for plastic pipes. Custom axial tensile and internal pressurization fixtures are developed to measure the pipe response; the analytical method is used to extend the results to predict 50-year (and beyond) behavior.

No / The in-line development of crystalline morphology and orientation during melt extrusion of low density polyethylene (LDPE) tape at nil and low haul-off speeds has been investigated using Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering (SAXS). The processing parameters, namely haul-off speed and distance down the tape-line have been varied and the resulting crystalline morphology is described from detailed analysis of the SAXS data. Increasing haul-off speed increased orientation in the polymer tape and the resulting morphology could be described in terms of regular lamellar stacking perpendicular to the elongation direction. In contrast, under nil haul-off conditions the tape still showed some orientation down the tape-line, but a shish-kebab structure prevails. The final lamellae thickness (similar to 50 angstrom) and bulk crystallinity (similar to 20%), were low at, for all processing conditions investigated, which is attributed to the significant short-chain branching in the polymer acting as point defects limiting lamellae crystal growth. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Hintergrund: Die Entwicklung von Nanotechnologien und insbesondere integrierten Schaltkreisen beruht auf dem Verständnis von Struktur und Funktion auf der Nanoskala, wofür exakte Messungen erforderlich sind. Kleinwinkel-Röntgenstreuung unter streifendem Einfall (GISAXS) ist eine Methode zur schnellen, berührungs- und zerstörungsfreien dimensionellen Messung von nanostrukturierten Oberflächen. Ziele: Es soll die Möglichkeit untersucht werden, die zunehmend komplexeren Proben aus Wissenschaft und Industrie mit Hilfe von GISAXS präzise zu vermessen. Ein weiteres Ziel ist es, Messtargets aus der Halbleiter-Qualitätskontrolle mit einer Größe von ca. 40x40 µm² zu messen, deren Signal typischerweise nicht zugänglich ist, weil ein Bereich von ca. 1x20 mm² auf einmal beleuchtet wird. Methoden: Synchrotron-basierte GISAXS-Messungen verschiedener Proben werden mit Hilfe einer Fourier-Konstruktion, der "distorted wave Born approximation" und einem Maxwell-Gleichungs-Löser basierend auf finiten Elementen analysiert. Ergebnisse: Aus GISAXS-Messungen kann die Linienform von Gittern mit einer Periode von 32 nm rekonstruiert werden und sie weicht weniger als 2 nm von Referenzmessungen ab. Eine sorgfältige Bayes'sche Unsicherheitsanalyse zeigt jedoch, dass wichtige dimensionelle Parameter innerhalb der Unsicherheiten nicht übereinstimmen. Für die Messung von kleinen Gittertargets entwerfe ich ein neuartiges Probendesign, bei dem das Target in Bezug auf die umgebenden Strukturen gedreht wird, und stelle fest, dass dadurch parasitäre Streuung effizient unterdrückt wird. Fazit: GISAXS-Messungen von komplexen Nanostrukturen und kleinen Targets sind möglich, jedoch würde GISAXS enorm von effizienteren Simulationsmethoden profitieren, die alle relevanten Effekte wie Rauhigkeit und Randeffekte einbeziehen. Hier gibt es vielversprechende theoretische Ansätze, so dass GISAXS eine zusätzliche Methode für die Halbleiter-Qualitätskontrolle werden könnte. / Background. The development of nanotechnology such as integrated circuits relies on an understanding of structure and function at the nanoscale, for which reliable and exact measurements are needed. Grazing-incidence small angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) is a versatile method for the fast, contactless and destruction-free measurement of sizes and shapes of nanostructures on surfaces. Aims. A goal of this work is to investigate the possibility of precisely measuring the increasingly complex samples produced in science and industry using GISAXS. A second objective is to measure targets used in semiconductor quality control with a size of approx. 40x40 µm², whose signal is typically not accessible because an area of approx. 1x20 mm² is illuminated at once. Methods. I take synchrotron-based GISAXS measurements and analyze them using reciprocal space construction, the distorted wave born approximation, and a solver for Maxwell's equations based on finite elements. Results. I find that the line shape of gratings with a period of 32 nm can be reconstructed from GISAXS measurements and the results deviate less than 2 nm from reference measurements; however, a careful Bayesian uncertainty analysis shows that key dimensional parameters do not agree within the uncertainties. For the measurement of small grating targets, I create a novel sample design where the target is rotated with respect to the surrounding structures and find that this efficiently suppresses parasitic scattering. Conclusions. I show that GISAXS measurements of complex nanostructures and small targets are possible, and I highlight that further development of GISAXS would benefit tremendously from efficient simulation methods which describe all relevant effects such as roughness and edge effects. Promising theoretical approaches exist, so that GISAXS has the potential to become an additional method in the toolkit of semiconductor quality control.

Um neue Halbleiter-Bauelemente zu entwickeln und die Effizienz bereits existierender zu verbessern, müssen neue Materialien erkundet und untersucht werden. Für Anwendungen in Hochleistungselektronik und UV-Optoelektronik ist Ga2O3 mit seiner ultra-weiten Bandlücke von 4.8 eV ein vielversprechender Kandidat. Diese Anwendung haben zu wachsendem Interesse an seinen fundamentalen elektronischen und optischen Eigenschaften geführt. Diese Dissertation präsentiert eine umfassende ab initio-Untersuchung der elektronischen Anregungen in Ga2O3, um zu dem Verständnis dieser fundamentalen Eigenschaften beizutragen. Die Arbeit besteht aus zwei Teilen: Im ersten Teil präsentieren wir eine Vielteilchen-Störungstheorie Methode zur konsistenten Berechnung der neutralen Anregungen von Valenz- und Kernelektronen in kristallinen Halbleitern. Diese ermöglicht die präzise Berechnung von Absorptions- und Streuungsspektren vom optischen bis zum Röntgenbereich. Zusätzlich präsentieren wir einen neuartigen Ausdruck für resonante inelastische Röntgenstreuung (RIXS) innerhalb unseres Vielteilchen-Formalismus, der eine detaillierte Analyse dieser Streuung erlaubt. Mit ausgewählten Beispielen demonstrieren wir das Potential unserer Implementation, die Spektren dieser verschiedenen spektroskopischen Methoden zu berechnen, zu analysieren und zu interpretieren. Im zweiten Teil der Dissertation verwenden wir unsere Methode, um die Anregungen der Valenzelektronen, sowie der Ga 1s-, Ga 2p- und O 1s-Elektronen in Ga2O3 zu berechnen. Wir finden ausgeprägte Unterschiede in den diversen Röntgenabsorptionsspektren von Ga2O3 -Polymorphen, die von der unterschiedlichen lokalen elektronischen Struktur stammen. Wir bestimmen die Zusammensetzung der Valenz- und Kernanregungen und analysieren ihre Signatur in den verschiedenen Absorptions- und Streuungsspektren. Abschließend demonstrieren wir wie RIXS einen zusätzlichen Blickwinkel auf die Valenz- und Kernanregungen und deren Wechselwirkungen ermöglicht. / To develop new semiconductor devices and improve the performance of existing ones, the exploration and understanding of novel materials is required. With an ultra-wide band gap of around 4.8 eV, Ga2O3 is a promising candidate for applications in UV-optoelectronics and power electronics. These applications have led to an increasing interest in its fundamental electronic and optical properties. In this thesis, we present a comprehensive first-principles study of the electronic excitations of Ga2O3 to contribute to the understanding of these fundamental properties. The thesis consists of two parts: In the first part, we present an all-electron many-body perturbation theory (MBPT) approach for consistent calculations of neutral core and valence excitations. It enables accurate calculation of absorption and inelastic scattering spectra in the optical, UV, and x-ray region. While these spectroscopic techniques probe either the valence or core excitations, resonant inelastic x-ray scattering (RIXS) reveals the interplay between the two. We present a novel expression for the RIXS cross section within our all-electron many-body formalism that allows for a detailed analysis of this interplay. We demonstrate the capability of our implementation to compute, analyze, and interpret the different spectroscopic techniques with selected examples of prototypical insulators. In the second part, we apply our approach to study valence excitations, as well as excitations of various core states, i.e. the gallium 1s, gallium 2p, and oxygen 1s states in Ga2O3 . Comparing the core spectra of Ga2O3 polymorphs, we find distinct differences that originate from their local environments. We determine the composition of valence and core excitons, and analyze their signatures in the various absorption and scattering spectra. Finally, we demonstrate how RIXS can be employed to provide a different viewpoint on the core and valence excitations and unravel the interplay between them.

Funktionale organische Moleküle bergen ein hohes Potential für den Einsatz in zukunftsprägenden Technologien wie organischen Leuchtdioden (OLED), Solarzellen, Transistoren und Bio-Sensoren. Eines der Herstellungsverfahren beruht auf der Gasphasenabscheidung der Moleküle, die auf dem Substrat mittels Selbstorganisation zu dünnen Schichten wachsen. Auf Grund der komplexen Wechselwirkungen und des Einflusses der Schichtmorphologie auf die Funktionalität der dünnen Schichten stellt der Wachstumsprozess sowohl für die anwendungsorientierte als auch für die Grundlagenforschung eine hochinteressante und wichtige wissenschaftliche Herausforderung dar, mit der sich die vorliegende Arbeit auseinandersetzt. Die experimentellen Resultate und Konzepte, die in dieser Arbeit vorgestellt werden, leisten neue Beiträge für das Verständnis von organischem Wachstum. Der demonstrierte Einfluss von chemischer Modifikation auf verschiedene Aspekte des Strukturwachstums, wie z.B. auf die Filmrauigkeit, Kristallphasenreinheit und molekulare Diffusivität, zeigt zudem das hohe Potential dieser Methode zur Steuerung des organischen Wachstums. Aus den genannten Gründen kann diese Arbeit neue Impulse für die Erforschung und spätere Anwendung von funktionalen organischen Dünnschichtsystemen setzen. / Functional organic molecules are promising for the application in future relevant technologies such as organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs), solar cells, transistors and bio-sensors. One of the processing methods to fabricate organic devices is organic molecular beam deposition. In this process, the complexly interacting molecules grow via self-assembly as thin films on a substrate. Due to the close structure-property relationship, the growth process constitutes a highly interesting and important scientific challenge for both application oriented as well as fundamental research and is the topic of the present thesis. The experimental results and conceptual methods presented in this thesis contribute new stimuli to the understanding of the molecular self-assembly. The demonstrated influence of chemical tuning on various facets of structure formation, such as film roughness, crystal phase purity and molecular diffusivities, uncovers the strong potential of this approach for steering organic growth. Therefore, the present work has implications for future research and application of functional organic thin films.

In dieser Doktorarbeit wird die Hypothese geprüft, ob Osteozyten einen direkten Einfluss auf die Knocheneigenschaften in ihrer unmittelbaren Umgebung haben. Der zentrale Experimentieransatz ist dabei die Korrelation der Organisation des Osteozytennetzwerks mit den Mineraleigenschaften des Knochens auf der Submikrometerebene. Es wird gezeigt, dass bereits die anfängliche Ausrichtung der Osteoblasten entscheidend für die Synthese von hoch ausgerichtetem Knochenmaterial ist. Die dabei entstehenden Osteozytennetzwerke sind so organisiert, dass die Osteozyten und ihre Zellfortsätze jeweils einen möglichst kleinen Abstand zum Knochenmineral haben. Deshalb wird vermutet, dass genau diese Netzwerkorganisation mitentscheidend ist, wie gut die Zellen das Mineral in ih-rer Umgebung beeinflussen können. Messungen der Knochenmineraleigenschaften auf Submikrometerebene mit Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung bestätigen diese Vermutung. Dabei wird deutlich, dass Knochenmaterial in der Nähe der Osteozyten durch andere Mineraleigenschaften geprägt ist. Um zu klären, wie Osteozyten Mineral in ihrer direkten Umgebung verändern können, werden Mechanismen der passiven Mineralherauslösung aus der mineralisierten Oberfläche des Osteozytennetzwerks untersucht. Es wird gezeigt, dass kalziumarme ionische Lösungen unter physiologischen Bedingungen große Mengen von Kalzium-Ionen aus dem Knochen lösen und diese dann durch die Osteozytennetzwerkstrukturen diffundieren können. Zum Abschluss wurde medullärer Knochen von Hühnern als ein Modellsystem für rasanten Knochenumbau untersucht. Dieser spezielle Knochentyp dient den Hennen als labiles Kalziumreservoir und ermöglicht dadurch die tägliche Eierschalenproduktion. Experimente am medullären Knochen-material zeigen insbesondere die Bedeutung von weniger stabilen Mineralstrukturen die benötigt werden um den Knochen an den schnellen, sich wiederholenden Knochenauf- sowie Abbau optimal anzupassen. / This thesis aims to test the hypothesis whether osteocytes have a direct influence on bone material properties in their vicinity. In this regard, the concomitant ana-lysis of osteocyte network organization and bone ultrastructural properties on the submicron level is the central approach to answer this question. In this work, it is shown that already initial cell-cell alignment during the process of bone formation is crucial for the synthesis of highly organized bone. Furthermore it is proposed that the occurrence of highly ordered osteocyte networks visualized with confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) has a strong impact on the ability of osteocytes to directly influence bone material properties. These highly organized networks are another consequence of initial cell-cell alignment and are found to be arranged such as to feature short mineral cell distances. Examination of sub-micron mineral properties with scanning small angle x-ray scattering (sSAXS) shows that bone material in the direct vicinity of osteocytes and their cell proc-esses shows different mineral properties compared to bone further away in the depth of the tissue. Moreover, mechanisms of passive mineral extraction from the mineralized surface of the osteocyte network, due to the treatment with calcium poor ionic solutions, are investigated. It is shown that this chemical process occurring under physiological conditions leads not only to the dissolution of considerable amounts of calcium, but also to efficient diffusion of these ions through the osteocyte network structures. Finally, medullary bone which is intended as a labile calcium source for daily egg shell formation in hens is used as a model system for rapid bone turnover rates. This bone type in particular indicates the importance of uniquely adapted, less stable mineral structures to fit the requirements for rapid bone resorption as well as reformation.

Un nouveau modèle de biomembrane de type liposome a été développé à partir de lipides synthétisés comportant une unité biphényle sur leur chaînes sn2 et une chaîne aliphatique sn1 de longueur et insaturation variables. L’anisotropie de susceptibilité magnétique positive de ces molécules induit une déformation en oblate de ces liposomes dits « biphényles » dans le champ magnétique B0. Cette déformation spécifique a été caractérisée par RMN des solides 31P et 2H en faisant varier différents paramètres : l’intensité de B0, l'élasticité membranaire, la température et la taille des liposomes (Helfrich, 1973). Ces vésicules déformées ont pu être observées par microscopies optiques et électroniques et la rémanence de la déformation en dehors de B0 a pu être analysée par diffusion des rayons X aux petits angles (SAXS). Enfin, les premières applications des liposomes biphényles comme nouveau modèle de biomembrane pour analyser la structure et l’orientation (par RMN des solides 15N) de peptides ou protéines membranaires, ont été étudiées. / A new model of biomembrane (liposome) was developed from synthesized lipids containing a biphenyl unit on the sn2 aliphatic chain and possessing a sn1 aliphatic chain which varies in length and unsaturation. The positive magnetic susceptibility anisotropy of these molecules induces an oblate deformation of these «biphenyls » liposomes under the magnetic field B0. This particular deformation has been characterized by 31P and 2H solid state NMR by varying different parameters: the intensity of B0, the membrane elasticity, the temperature and the size of the liposomes (Helfrich, 1973). These deformed vesicles were observed by optical and electron microscopy and the remanence of the deformation outside B0 has been analyzed by Small angles X-ray scattering (SAXS).Finally, the first applications of biphenyls liposomes as new biomembrane model to analyze the structure and orientation of membrane proteins or peptides were studied by 15N solid state NMR

L'utilisation de matériaux polymères a su s'imposer au cours du 20ième siècle, en remplaçant ou se combinant aux matériaux métalliques, pour des applications mécaniques toujours plus techniques. La grande diversité des propriétés physiques des polymères est intimement lié à leur forte complexité microstructurale, qui malgré leur utilisation massive reste, au demeurant, encore très incomprise. Afin de mieux comprendre les évolutions microstructurales aux échelles nano et micrométrique dont résultent le comportement macroscopique il est nécessaire de développer de nouvelles techniques de caractérisation in situ. Ce travail fait état de l'utilisation de la spectroscopie Raman couplée au système VidéoTractionTM afin d'obtenir des informations microstructurales de la déformation de polymère semi-cristallins. Pour cela, des polypropylènes de formulations diverses ont été étudiés, permettant de souligner le rôle joué par la matrice et les charges organiques et minérales dans le processus de déformation plastique. Des mesures in situ de l'orientation des chaînes macromoléculaires déterminées in situ par Raman ont été confirmées, au synchrotron Petra III d'Hambourg, par une expérience couplant le système VidéoTractionTM-Raman à un dispositif de diffusion des rayons X aux grands angles. L'endommagent volumique des matériaux a été étudié post mortem par Tomographie X et radiographie X. Les améliorations apportées au système VidéoTractionTM-Raman ainsi qu'une étude de la diffusion de la lumière incohérente de nos matériaux au cours de leurs déformations ont permis l'établissement d'un critère de mesure de l'endommagement volumique in situ par Raman / The use of polymer materials - replacing or combining with metallic materials - has successfully established itself in the 20th century for increasingly technical mechanical applications. The great diversity of polymers physical properties is closely related to their high microstructural complexity, which is still very misunderstood despite their massive use. The development of new techniques for in situ characterization allows to better understand the microstructural evolutions on nanoscale and micrometer scale which affect the macroscopic behavior. This work report the use of Raman spectroscopy coupled with the VideoTractionTM system in order to obtain information about the microstructural deformation of polymer. Various formulations of polypropylene were studied to highlight the role played by the polypropylene matrix and the organic and mineral fillers in the plastic deformation process. The in situ measures of the macromolecular chains' orientation determined by Raman were confirmed by the performing of an experimental setup coupling the Raman-VideoTractionTM system with a device of Wide angle X-ray scattering. The volume damage of material was studied post mortem using X-ray tomography. The improvements made to VideoTractionTM-Raman system and a study of the incoherent light scattering of our materials enabled the setting of a Raman criterion for measuring in situ the volume damage. The studies carried out to evaluate in situ macromolecular orientation and volume damage highlight the existence of competition between these two processes. The degree of influence of organic and mineral fillers in this competition within the polypropylene matrix was determined