Studies in both children and adults indicate that waist circumference (WC), a measure of abdominal obesity is closely related to cardiovascular risk factors. The accurate identification of abdominally obese children in health screening programmes for early intervention is of importance. There are, however, concerns about using international definitions for screening purposes because in most instances these have been derived from Western populations and, therefore, may have limited usefulness to children in other parts of the world. When these cut–off points are used in developing countries, they ignore the fact that the growth patterns of children and burdens of disease vary between countries. Due to lack of population specific cut–off points for children in the developing world it may be tempting and convenient to use the same cut–off points as for children in developed countries, but such a practice runs the risk of exporting failure. Ideally, a screening tool should have both high sensitivity and specificity, and these are important considerations in choosing the definition for the detection of childhood abdominal obesity. High sensitivity is necessary to avoid failure of identifying obese children and high specificity of the screening tool ensures that non–obese children are not misclassified as obese, which may otherwise lead to unnecessary treatment and psychosocial implications of stigmatisation. Failure to identify the abdominally obese child may have more serious consequences than misclassification, since it results in an increase in adult morbidity and mortality. Therefore, the main aim of this thesis was to examine fat distribution patterns of black South African (SA) children in relation to health risk. The specific objectives were to: compare the body composition of black stunted and non–stunted children from two rural communities in South Africa; to describe and compare the age and sex specific WC percentile distribution for black SA children from different study populations and compare the WC percentile distribution with those for African–American (A–A) children and to assess the diagnostic accuracy of waist–to–height ratio (WHtR) as a marker for high blood pressure, a cardiovascular risk factor in SA children. Findings of this study demonstrated increased total adiposity in non–stunted children, but trends of increased central adiposity, measured as WHtR in stunted children. This warrants further investigation on this relationship among children older than 13 years in the African context where many children are stunted. The differences observed between the different data sets and between SA and A–A children suggest that nationally representative data should be used to develop age, sex and ethnic specific WC percentiles for this population. The results indicate clearly that the median WC of children from SA studies is smaller than those of A–A children, with a medium to large effect size for the difference. Results also suggest concern with respect to high WC values (> 80 cm) among some children. The recommended universal WHtR cut–off value of 0.5 for assessment of cardiovascular risk is not suitable for black SA children because it had low sensitivity in predicting high blood pressure. The absence of locally developed cut–off values for WC and WHtR for children warrants research due to the associations between being overweight and obese and disease outcomes. It is fundamental to detect risk at an early stage so that appropriate intervention can be initiated timeously. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Nutrition))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais / Estudos observacionais mostraram que ganho de peso e aumento da circunferência do abdome são índices prognósticos importantes na hipertensão arterial, sendo a obesidade abdominal um indicador relevante de risco cardiovascular aumentado. O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar alterações metabólicas e cardíacas em uma amostra de mulheres hipertensas não diabéticas com obesidade abdominal. Em um estudo transversal foram incluídas 120 mulheres hipertensas com idade entre 40 e 65 anos, divididas em grupo sem e com obesidade abdominal (SOA, n=42 e COA, n=78) quando circunferência abdominal < ou &#8805; 88cm, respectivamente. As participantes do estudo foram submetidas à avaliação clínica e antropométrica, sendo coletados sangue e urina para exames bioquímicos. A seguir, foram encaminhadas para realização de eletrocardiograma, ecodopplercardiograma e ultrassonografia de carótida. A média de idade foi em torno de 53 anos nos dois grupos. A pressão arterial diastólica foi significativamente mais elevada no grupo com obesidade abdominal (901 vs 851 mmHg, p<0,05). Por outro lado, a pressão arterial sistólica, embora maior entre as mulheres obesas, não atingiu significância estatística (1452 vs 1402 mmHg, p=0,0979). O grupo COA apresentou maior número de critérios (3,10,1 vs 1,40,1, p<0,001) e maior prevalência (62,8 vs 11,9%, p<0,001) de síndrome metabólica, com escore de risco de Framingham semelhante entre os dois grupos. Apesar de glicemias normais e semelhantes nos dois grupos, as pacientes COA apresentaram índices significativamente mais altos de HOMA-IR (2,620,22 vs 1,610,17 p<0,01) e HOMA-beta (35857 vs 20022 p<0,05). Este grupo também demonstrou valores significativamente mais elevados de proteína C-reativa (0,490,05 vs 0,260,05mg/dl, p<0,01), ácido úrico (5,20,1 vs 4,20,1 mg/dl, p<0,001) e triglicerídeos (1398 vs 1079 mg/dl, p<0,05), e menores de HDL (491 vs 552 mg/dl, p<0,05). Na avaliação ecocardiográfica, a função sistólica foi semelhante nos dois grupos, mas as pacientes COA apresentaram evidências de disfunção diastólica pelo Doppler tecidual. As pacientes SOA apresentaram geometria ventricular predominantemente normal (75%), enquanto que o grupo COA teve uma prevalência maior de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (29,2 vs 2,4%). Não houve diferença em relação à espessura médio-intimal da carótida nos dois grupos. Em conclusão, nesta amostra de mulheres hipertensas não diabéticas de meia-idade, a obesidade abdominal foi mais associada com resistência à insulina e alterações cardíacas estruturais e funcionais diastólicas, ainda sem evidências do processo de aterosclerose. / Observational studies have demonstrated that weight gain and increase of abdominal circumference are important prognostic indexes in hypertension, and abdominal obesity is a relevant marker of increased cardiovascular risk. The purpose of this study was to identify metabolic and cardiac alterations in a sample of non-diabetic hypertensive women with abdominal obesity. In a cross-sectional study, 120 hypertensive women aged 40-65 years were included and separated in groups without abdominal obesity (AO-, n=42) and with abdominal obesity (AO+, n=78) according waist circumference < or &#8805; 88cm, respectively. The participants of this study were submitted to clinical and anthropometric evaluation, and blood and urine were collected for biochemical tests. Afterwards, electrocardiography, echocardiography, and carotid ultrasound were performed. The mean age was 53 years in both groups. The diastolic blood pressure was significantly higher in the group AO+ (901 vs 851 mmHg, p<0.05). On the other hand, the systolic blood pressure, although higher among obese women, did not reach statistical significance (1452 vs 1402 mmHg, p=0.0979). The group AO+ presented greater number of criteria (3.10.1 vs 1.40.1, p<0.001) and greater prevalence (62.8 vs 11.9%, p<0.001) of metabolic syndrome, with similar Framingham risk score between the two groups. Despite normal and similar serum glucose levels in both groups, patients AO+ presented significantly higher indexes of HOMA-IR (2.620.22 vs 1.610.17 p<0.01) and HOMA-beta (35857 vs 20022 p<0.05). This group also demonstrated significantly greater values of C-reactive protein (0.490.05 vs 0.260.05mg/dl, p<0.01), uric acid (5.20.1 vs 4.20.1 mg/dl, p<0.001) and triglycerides (1398 vs 1079 mg/dl, p<0.05), and lower HDL-cholesterol levels (491 vs 552 mg/dl, p<0.05). In echocardiography, the systolic function was comparable between the two groups, but the patients AO+ presented evidences of diastolic dysfunction by tissue Doppler. The patients AO- presented predominantly normal geometry (75%) of left ventricle, while the group AO+ had a higher prevalence of left ventricle hypertrophy (29.2 vs 2.4%). There was no difference between the two groups concerning carotid intima-media thickness. In conclusion, in this sample of middle-age non-diabetic hypertensive women, abdominal obesity was associated with insulin resistance and structural and functional cardiac alterations, with no evidences of atherosclerotic process.

Introdução: O excesso de tecido adiposo, tanto global quanto abdominal, tem se associado com o desenvolvimento de comorbidades, sendo a hipertensão arterial sistêmica (HAS) uma das mais importantes. Objetivos: O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar a influência de categorias de índice de massa corpórea (IMC) e de medida de cintura abdominal (CA) na ocorrência de HAS. Sujeitos e Métodos: Fizeram parte deste estudo transversal 1.584 indivíduos, com idades entre 18 e 64 anos (44,6% homens, idade média de 33,1 anos), funcionários de um hospital de grande porte de São Paulo, Brasil. Medida principal do desfecho: A HAS foi definida como sendo a medida da pressão arterial &#8805; 140/90 mmHg e/ou o uso de medicação anti-hipertensiva. O efeito do IMC e da CA sobre a pressão arterial foi estudado através de modelos de regressão logística, ajustados para potenciais variáveis de confusão. Foi calculado também aproximações do risco atribuível populacional (RAP) de HAS relacionado ao IMC e a CA. Resultados: A prevalência de HAS foi de 18,9%, sendo 26,9% no sexo masculino e 12,5% no sexo feminino. Foi observada uma tendência linear de associação entre as categorias de IMC e HAS, sendo que, tomando-se como base os indivíduos com IMC < 22,5, as razões de chance para a ocorrência de HAS foram de 2,1, 3,8 e 12 para homens com IMC de 22,5 a 25, de 25 a 30 e &#8805; 30, respectivamente. Para mulheres esses valores foram de 1,6, 2,3 e 8,7, respectivamente. As razões de chance de HAS associadas a valores elevados de IMC se mantiveram significativas mesmo após o controle para CA. Os modelos de regressão logística construídos para CA indicaram razões de chance para a ocorrência de HAS de 2,2 e 5,9 para homens com CA entre 94 e 102 e &#8805; 102 cm, respectivamente. Para mulheres com CA de 80 a 88 e &#8805; 88 cm esses valores foram de 1,1 e 4,2, respectivamente. As razões de chance se mantiveram significativas mesmo após a inclusão do IMC nesses modelos. Na divisão por quartis do IMC e da CA foi observada a mesma tendência linear de associação com a HAS. O cálculo do RAP indicou que valores elevados de IMC (&#8805; 22,5) determinavam 73% da ocorrência de HAS em homens, sendo 8%, 31% e 34% dessa ocorrência atribuível a IMC de 22,5 a 25, de 25 a 30 e &#8805; 30, respectivamente. Para mulheres esses valores foram de 55%, 8%, 15% e 32%, respectivamente. Da mesma forma, valores elevados de CA em homens (&#8805; 94 cm) determinavam 50% da ocorrência de HAS, sendo 14% e 36% nos indivíduos com CA entre 94 e 102 cm e &#8805; 102 cm, respectivamente. Em mulheres esses valores foram de 44%, 2%, e 42% para medidas de CA &#8805; 80 cm, entre 80 e 88 cm e &#8805; 88 cm, respectivamente. Conclusão:Foi possível demonstrar relações, independentes de potenciais fatores de confusão, entre as categorias de IMC e de medida da cintura abdominal e a ocorrência de HAS. Essas relações se mantiveram significativas quando o IMC era ajustado para CA e quando a CA era ajustada para IMC, indicando que tanto o excesso de tecido adiposo abdominal quanto o excesso de tecido adiposo global representavam riscos para o desenvolvimento da HAS. Foi demonstrado também que o excesso de tecido adiposo, global e abdominal, responderam por grande parte da ocorrência de HAS em homens e mulheres e que valores de IMC comumente considerados como normais (22,5 a 24,9) já representam risco para o desenvolvimento de HAS. / Introduction: The excess of adipose tissue, global as much as abdominal, has been associated with development of comorbidities, which case systemic arterial hipertension (SAH) is one of the most important. Objectives: The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between categories of body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC) on SAH. Subjects and Methods: A cross sectional analysis was conducted of 1,584 subjects aged 18 to 64 years (44,6% men, mean age 33,1 years) of a great hospital’s employees of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Principal outcome: The SAH was defined as blood pressure levels &#8805; 140/90 mmHg and/or use of anti-hypertensive medication. Logistic regression models, adjusted for potential’s confusion factors, studied the correlation between BMI and WC on SAH. The population attributable risk (PAR) of SAH related to BMI and WC was also calculated. Results: Prevalence of SAH was 18.9%, wich 26.9% in male and 12.5% in female. A linear trend relationship between categories of BMI and HAS was observed, and based in individuals with BMI < 22.5, odds ratio for HAS were 2.1, 3.8 and 12 for men with BMI from 22.5 to 25, 25 to 30 and &#8805; 30, respectively. For women these values were 1.6, 2.3 and 8.7, respectively. Odds ratio for HAS associated with high values of BMI remained significant, even after adjustement for WC. Logistic regression’s models for WC showed odds ratio for HAS of 2.2 and 5.9 for men with WC from 94 to 102 and &#8805; 102 cm, respectively. For women with WC from 80 to 88 and &#8805; 88 cm these values were 1.1 and 4.2, respectively. Odds ratios remained significant after inclusion of BMI in these models. A same linear trend relationship with SAH was observed in division for quartiles for BMI and WC. Calculation of RAP indicated that high values of BMI (&#8805; 22.5) determined 73% of occurrence of SAH in men and 8%, 31% and 34% of this occurrence were attributable to BMI from 22.5 to 25, 25 to 30 and &#8805; 30, respectively. For women these values were 55%, 8%, 15% and 32%, respectively. In the same way, high values of WC in men (&#8805; 94 cm) determined 50% of occurrence of SAH, which case 14% and 36% of this occurrence in individuals with WC from 94 to 102 cm and &#8805; 102 cm, respectively. In women these values were 44%, 2%, and 42% for WC &#8805; 80 cm, from 80 to 88 cm and &#8805; 88 cm, respectively. Conclusion: It was possible to demonstrate relationships, independent of potential’s confusion factors, between categories of BMI and waist circumference and occurrence of SAH. These relationships remained significant when BMI was adjusted for WC and when WC was adjusted for BMI, showing that excess of abdominal adipose tissue as much as excess of global adipose tissue represented a risk for development of SAH. It was also demonstrated that excess of adipose tissue, global and abdominal, was responsible for great part of occurrence of SAH in men and women and BMI from 22,5 to 24,9, commonly consider as normal, already represented a risk on development of SAH.

Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais / Estudos observacionais mostraram que ganho de peso e aumento da circunferência do abdome são índices prognósticos importantes na hipertensão arterial, sendo a obesidade abdominal um indicador relevante de risco cardiovascular aumentado. O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar alterações metabólicas e cardíacas em uma amostra de mulheres hipertensas não diabéticas com obesidade abdominal. Em um estudo transversal foram incluídas 120 mulheres hipertensas com idade entre 40 e 65 anos, divididas em grupo sem e com obesidade abdominal (SOA, n=42 e COA, n=78) quando circunferência abdominal < ou &#8805; 88cm, respectivamente. As participantes do estudo foram submetidas à avaliação clínica e antropométrica, sendo coletados sangue e urina para exames bioquímicos. A seguir, foram encaminhadas para realização de eletrocardiograma, ecodopplercardiograma e ultrassonografia de carótida. A média de idade foi em torno de 53 anos nos dois grupos. A pressão arterial diastólica foi significativamente mais elevada no grupo com obesidade abdominal (901 vs 851 mmHg, p<0,05). Por outro lado, a pressão arterial sistólica, embora maior entre as mulheres obesas, não atingiu significância estatística (1452 vs 1402 mmHg, p=0,0979). O grupo COA apresentou maior número de critérios (3,10,1 vs 1,40,1, p<0,001) e maior prevalência (62,8 vs 11,9%, p<0,001) de síndrome metabólica, com escore de risco de Framingham semelhante entre os dois grupos. Apesar de glicemias normais e semelhantes nos dois grupos, as pacientes COA apresentaram índices significativamente mais altos de HOMA-IR (2,620,22 vs 1,610,17 p<0,01) e HOMA-beta (35857 vs 20022 p<0,05). Este grupo também demonstrou valores significativamente mais elevados de proteína C-reativa (0,490,05 vs 0,260,05mg/dl, p<0,01), ácido úrico (5,20,1 vs 4,20,1 mg/dl, p<0,001) e triglicerídeos (1398 vs 1079 mg/dl, p<0,05), e menores de HDL (491 vs 552 mg/dl, p<0,05). Na avaliação ecocardiográfica, a função sistólica foi semelhante nos dois grupos, mas as pacientes COA apresentaram evidências de disfunção diastólica pelo Doppler tecidual. As pacientes SOA apresentaram geometria ventricular predominantemente normal (75%), enquanto que o grupo COA teve uma prevalência maior de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (29,2 vs 2,4%). Não houve diferença em relação à espessura médio-intimal da carótida nos dois grupos. Em conclusão, nesta amostra de mulheres hipertensas não diabéticas de meia-idade, a obesidade abdominal foi mais associada com resistência à insulina e alterações cardíacas estruturais e funcionais diastólicas, ainda sem evidências do processo de aterosclerose. / Observational studies have demonstrated that weight gain and increase of abdominal circumference are important prognostic indexes in hypertension, and abdominal obesity is a relevant marker of increased cardiovascular risk. The purpose of this study was to identify metabolic and cardiac alterations in a sample of non-diabetic hypertensive women with abdominal obesity. In a cross-sectional study, 120 hypertensive women aged 40-65 years were included and separated in groups without abdominal obesity (AO-, n=42) and with abdominal obesity (AO+, n=78) according waist circumference < or &#8805; 88cm, respectively. The participants of this study were submitted to clinical and anthropometric evaluation, and blood and urine were collected for biochemical tests. Afterwards, electrocardiography, echocardiography, and carotid ultrasound were performed. The mean age was 53 years in both groups. The diastolic blood pressure was significantly higher in the group AO+ (901 vs 851 mmHg, p<0.05). On the other hand, the systolic blood pressure, although higher among obese women, did not reach statistical significance (1452 vs 1402 mmHg, p=0.0979). The group AO+ presented greater number of criteria (3.10.1 vs 1.40.1, p<0.001) and greater prevalence (62.8 vs 11.9%, p<0.001) of metabolic syndrome, with similar Framingham risk score between the two groups. Despite normal and similar serum glucose levels in both groups, patients AO+ presented significantly higher indexes of HOMA-IR (2.620.22 vs 1.610.17 p<0.01) and HOMA-beta (35857 vs 20022 p<0.05). This group also demonstrated significantly greater values of C-reactive protein (0.490.05 vs 0.260.05mg/dl, p<0.01), uric acid (5.20.1 vs 4.20.1 mg/dl, p<0.001) and triglycerides (1398 vs 1079 mg/dl, p<0.05), and lower HDL-cholesterol levels (491 vs 552 mg/dl, p<0.05). In echocardiography, the systolic function was comparable between the two groups, but the patients AO+ presented evidences of diastolic dysfunction by tissue Doppler. The patients AO- presented predominantly normal geometry (75%) of left ventricle, while the group AO+ had a higher prevalence of left ventricle hypertrophy (29.2 vs 2.4%). There was no difference between the two groups concerning carotid intima-media thickness. In conclusion, in this sample of middle-age non-diabetic hypertensive women, abdominal obesity was associated with insulin resistance and structural and functional cardiac alterations, with no evidences of atherosclerotic process.

Accumulating evidence suggests that measures of abdominal obesity outperform BMI in predicting diabetes and cardiovascular risk. However, it is debated which measure of obesity should be used. Currently, waist circumference (WC) is most commonly used and codefines the metabolic syndrome.

Introduction Les mécanismes sous-jacents à la relation entre la fonction ventilatoire et l’incidence de pathologies cardiovasculaires restent incertains. Le syndrome métabolique, cluster des principaux facteurs de risque cardiovasculaire dont l’obésité abdominale, pourrait jouer un rôle dans cette relation. Le lien entre le syndrome métabolique et la fonction ventilatoire est méconnu. Parallèlement, peu de données ont été publiées sur la relation entre l’obésité abdominale et le risque d’asthme. De nombreuses études ont rapporté une relation positive entre l’indice de masse corporelle (IMC) et l’incidence de l’asthme en particulier chez la femme. L’IMC est un indice global qui ne permet pas de distinguer la masse maigre de la masse grasse ni d’estimer la distribution régionale de l’adiposité. L’adiposité, en particulier abdominale, tend à augmenter avec l’âge au détriment de la masse maigre. Chez le sujet âgé, bien que fréquent et souvent sévère, l’asthme reste peu étudié.Matériel et Méthodes La relation entre le syndrome métabolique et la fonction ventilatoire (Volume Expiratoire Maximal Seconde, Capacité Vitale Forcée) a été étudiée à partir des données de 121965 sujets ayant bénéficié d’un examen périodique de santé au centre IPC à Paris entre 1999 et 2006. Une analyse en composantes principales a permis d’évaluer la part respective de chacun des paramètres du syndrome dans cette relation. Puis, l’étude du déclin de la fonction ventilatoire (VEMS) et de son lien avec l’adiposité abdominale a été conduite chez près de 10000 sujets du centre IPC réexaminés à 5 ans. Enfin, la relation entre l’adiposité abdominale et la prévalence et l’incidence de l’asthme a été analysée au sein de la cohorte des 3 Cités chez 7643sujets âgés de 65 ans et plus. Principaux résultats Le syndrome métabolique était associé à l’altération de la fonction ventilatoire (Odds Ratio ajusté, Intervalle de Confiance à 95%=1,28 [1,20-1,37] et ORa=1,41 [1,31-1,51], respectivement pour le VEMS et la CVF<Limite Inférieure de la Normale). Cette association reposait essentiellement sur la présence de l’obésité abdominale indépendamment entre autres de l’IMC et du statut tabagique chez l’homme comme chez la femme. Un déclin accéléré de la fonction ventilatoire était associé au gain d’adiposité abdominale (∆VEMS= -24,6 ; -29,0 ; -36,2 ml/an pour un tour de taille « diminué », « stable » et « augmenté », respectivement). Un risque augmenté d’asthme était associé au surpoids abdominal et à l’obésité abdominale dans les deux sexes (ORa, IC95%=1,30 [1,02-1,65] et 1,76 [1,31-2,36], respectivement). Conclusion Ces résultats apportent des arguments en faveur du rôle de l’obésité abdominale dans le développement des pathologies respiratoires chroniques. Nos résultats suggèrent que la mesure de la fonction ventilatoire pourrait aider à identifier les sujets à haut risque cardiométabolique. / Introduction The mechanisms underlying the relationship between lung function and the incidence of cardiovascular disease remain uncertain. Metabolic syndrome, a cluster of major cardiovascular risk factors including abdominal obesity, may play a role in this relationship. Data on the association between lung function and metabolic syndrome are sparse. Few data have been published on the relationship between abdominal obesity and the risk of asthma. Many studies have reported a positive relationship between body mass index (BMI) and the incidence of asthma particularly in women. BMI is a crude measure of obesity that does not discriminate between muscle and adipose tissue mass or estimate regional adiposity. Adiposity, and particularly visceral fat mass, tends to increase with aging at the expense of muscle mass and these changes in body composition make BMI an inadequate body fatness indicator. In the elderly, although frequent and often severe, asthma remains poorly studied.Materials and MethodsFirst, the relationship between metabolic syndrome and lung function (Forced expiratory volume in one second, Forced Vital Capacity) was studied using data from 121,965 patients who had a health examination at the Paris Investigations Préventives et Cliniques center between 1999 and 2006. A principal component analysis was used to investigate the differential associations between lung function and specific components of metabolic syndrome. Second, the study of lung function (FEV1) decline and its relationship with abdominal fat was conducted among nearly 10,000 subjects followed 5 years later at the IPC center. Third, the relationship between abdominal adiposity and prevalence and incidence of asthma was analyzed within the 3 Cities cohort study including 7,643 subjects aged 65 and over.Main resultsMetabolic syndrome was associated with impaired lung function (Adjusted Odds Ratio, 95% Confidence Interval=1.28 [1.20-1.37] et ORa=1.41 [1.31-1.51], for FEV1 and FVC<Lower Limit of Normal, respectively). This association was mainly due on the presence of abdominal obesity independently of BMI and smoking status in men as in women. An accelerated decline in lung function was associated with abdominal fat gain (∆VEMS= -24.6 ; -29.0 ; -36.2 ml/year for waist circumference « decreased», « stable » et « increased », respectively). An increased risk of asthma was associated with abdominal overweight and abdominal obesity in both sexes (ORa, IC95%=1.30 [1.02-1.65] and 1.76 [1.31-2.36], respectively).ConclusionThese results provide arguments for the role of abdominal obesity in the development of chronic lung diseases. Measurement of lung function may help to identify patients at cardiometabolic high risk.

Objetivo: identificar o risco cardiovascular (RCV) e sua associação com fase do climatério, idade, grau de instrução, paridade, nível de atividade física, hábito de fumar e terapia hormonal da menopausa, em mulheres de 40 a 65 anos atendidas em ambulatórios públicos da cidade de São Paulo. Métodos: as variáveis dependentes foram RCV segundo obesidade global, identificada pelo índice de massa corporal (IMC) e pelo percentual de gordura corporal (%GC), e RCV segundo obesidade abdominal, identificada pela relação cintura/quadril (RCQ) e pela circunferência da cintura (CC). A variável explanatória principal foi fase do climatério e as variáveis de controle foram: idade, grau de instrução, paridade, nível de atividade física, hábito de fumar e terapia hormonal da menopausa (THM). As análises de regressão logística múltipla foram executadas no programa STATA 9.0, utilizando o processo \"stepwise\". Resultados: constatou-se RCV aumentado, segundo obesidade global, em 32,0% (IMC) e 24,7% (%GC) das mulheres; e, segundo obesidade abdominal em 49,0% (RCQ) e 64,0% (CC) das mulheres. Nos modelos finais, permaneceram associadas ao RCV aumentado, segundo obesidade global (IMC): fase do climatério, nível de atividade física, paridade e grau de instrução e, de acordo com o %GC: nível de atividade física e paridade. Segundo obesidade abdominal (RCQ) permaneceram associadas: nível de atividade física, grau de instrução e idade e, de acordo com a CC: nível de atividade física, paridade e idade. Conclusão: a fase do climatério só foi importante para explicar o RCV aumentado, segundo obesidade global, identificada pelo IMC. A variável explanatória mais importante para explicar o RCV aumentado, tanto segundo obesidade global como abdominal, foi o nível de atividade física; enquanto a paridade foi importante para explicar o RCV aumentado segundo obesidade global e a idade, segundo obesidade abdominal. / Purpose: to identify cardiovascular risk (CVR) and its relationship to climacteric period, age, educational level, parity, physical activity level, tobacco smoking and hormone therapy, in women aged 40-65 years old, attended in outpatient clinics from São Paulo, Brazil. Methods: the dependent variables were: CVR, according to body obesity, assessed by body mass index (BMI) and by body fat percentage (%BF), and CVR, according to abdominal obesity, assessed by waist/hip ratio (WHR) and by waist circumference (WC). The main explanatory variable was climacteric period and the control variables were: age, educational level, parity, physical activity level, tobacco smoking and hormone therapy. The multiple regression analysis were performed at software STATA 9.0, by the stepwise process. Results: higher CVR assessed by body obesity prevalence was 32,0% (BMI) and 24,7% (%GC); according to abdominal obesity, was 49,0% (WHR) and 64,0% (WC). In the final models, the variables associated with higher CVR, assessed by body obesity, were climacteric period, physical activity level, parity and educational level (BMI) and physical activity level and parity (%BF). According to abdominal obesity, the variables associated with higher CVR were physical activity level, educational level and age (WHR) and physical activity level, parity and age (WC). Conclusion: the most important variable to explain higher CVR was physical activity level, according to body and abdominal obesity, while the parity was important to explain higher CVR according to body obesity and the age to explain higher CVR according to abdominal obesity.

Objetivo. Ao mesmo tempo em que a obesidade aumenta no mundo todo e se torna cada vez mais um problema de Saúde Pública, o stress aumenta no cotidiano das pessoas e na busca pela sobrevivência. Verificar a possível associação entre prevalências de obesidade centralizada e indicadores de stress é o objetivo desse trabalho. Métodos. Utilizam-se dados de um estudo transversal, com informações de 298 mulheres de 20 a 59 anos, moradoras de um município da Grande São Paulo, as quais responderam questionários especialmente elaborados para avaliar o stress psicológico. O diagnóstico de obesidade centralizada foi feito através da medida da circunferência da cintura (CC) e da razão cinturaquadril (RCQ). O stress psicológico foi medido em escores atribuídos às respostas dos questionários e classificado em 3 categorias: isento, resistência e exaustão. A análise estatística foi realizada mediante dois modelos de regressão linear generalizada múltipla entre a variável resposta obesidade centralizada em duas categorias (sim, não) e o stress psicológico em três fases (isento, resistência e exaustão), controlando-se as variáveis demográficas: idade e escolaridade. Resultados. As prevalências de obesidade centralizada foram semelhantes nos dois modelos, respectivamente 40,6 % e 42% para CC e RCQ. As prevalências de stress psicológico foram 61,7% e 8,4% para as fases resistência e exaustão. As associações entre a categoria sim foram positivas e significantes, respectivamente para CC e RCQ (RP 1,51, P 0,028 e RP 1,52, P 0,022) com o stress na fase de exaustão, com o aumento da idade (RP 1,02, P 0,001 e RP 1,01, P 0,002) e com baixa escolaridade (RP 0,67, P 0,030 e RP 0,59, P 0,005). O teste de tendência foi positivo (P 0,029) para a categoria sim do RCQ e aumento das categorias de stress. Conclusões. A fase de exaustão do stress mostrou associação positiva e significante com a obesidade centralizada nos dois modelos estudados, CC e RCQ. O teste significante de tendência com a RCQ sugere efeito gradativo das fases do stress sobre a obesidade centralizada. São necessários, no entanto, outros estudos que comprovem a associação da obesidade centralizada com o stress subdividido em categorias. / Objective. When observing modern life nowadays we find out that, at the same time that obesity increases all around the world and becomes a real concern to public health authorities, we also see stress proliferating in peoples everyday life, specially in the fight for survival. The purpose of this work is to verify the association between prevalence of abdominal obesity and stress indicators. Methods. This work uses given data of a transversal study, containing information of 298 women aged between 20 and 59, inhabitants of the Great São Paulo, who had been submitted to questionnaires especially formulated to evaluate psychological stress. The diagnosis of abdominal obesity was made using two models: measuring Waist Circumference (WC) and Waist - Hip ratio (WHR). Psychological stress was measured in scores attributed to answers of the questionnaires and classified in 3 categories: Exempt, Resistance and Exhaustion. The statistics analysis were carried through two models of multiple generalized linear regression between the variable which is the answer- abdominal obesity focused in two categories (Yes, No) and psychological stress focused in three categories (Exempt, Resistance, Exhaustion) maintaining under control the demographic variables such as age and scholarship. Results. The results referring to the prevalence of abdominal obesity were similar in the two models showing respectively 40.6% and 42% for WC and WHR. The results on the prevalence of psychological stress were 61.7% and 8.4% respectively for the phase of Resistance and the phase of Exhaustion. The associations in the Yes category were classified as being positive and significant, for WC and WHR respectively, Prevalence Ratio PR 1,51, significancy P 0,028 and PR 1,52, P 0,022 for the stress in the phase of Exhaustion, when considered also an increase in age (PR 1,02, P 0,001 and PR 1,01, P 0,002) and a decrease in the level of education (PR 0,67, P 0,030 and PR 0,59, P 0,005) The trend analysis was positive (P 0,029) for the increase of the WHR and the categories of stress. Conclusions. The phase of Exhaustion of Stress showed positive and significant association with the Abdominal Obesity in the two models, WC and WHR. The positive results in the trend tests with the WHR suggest that abdominal obesity may be gradually affected by the phases of stress. Nevertheless, there is the need of further investigation to confirm the association between abdominal obesity and the various categories of stress.

Objetivo: identificar o risco cardiovascular (RCV) e sua associação com fase do climatério, idade, grau de instrução, paridade, nível de atividade física, hábito de fumar e terapia hormonal da menopausa, em mulheres de 40 a 65 anos atendidas em ambulatórios públicos da cidade de São Paulo. Métodos: as variáveis dependentes foram RCV segundo obesidade global, identificada pelo índice de massa corporal (IMC) e pelo percentual de gordura corporal (%GC), e RCV segundo obesidade abdominal, identificada pela relação cintura/quadril (RCQ) e pela circunferência da cintura (CC). A variável explanatória principal foi fase do climatério e as variáveis de controle foram: idade, grau de instrução, paridade, nível de atividade física, hábito de fumar e terapia hormonal da menopausa (THM). As análises de regressão logística múltipla foram executadas no programa STATA 9.0, utilizando o processo \"stepwise\". Resultados: constatou-se RCV aumentado, segundo obesidade global, em 32,0% (IMC) e 24,7% (%GC) das mulheres; e, segundo obesidade abdominal em 49,0% (RCQ) e 64,0% (CC) das mulheres. Nos modelos finais, permaneceram associadas ao RCV aumentado, segundo obesidade global (IMC): fase do climatério, nível de atividade física, paridade e grau de instrução e, de acordo com o %GC: nível de atividade física e paridade. Segundo obesidade abdominal (RCQ) permaneceram associadas: nível de atividade física, grau de instrução e idade e, de acordo com a CC: nível de atividade física, paridade e idade. Conclusão: a fase do climatério só foi importante para explicar o RCV aumentado, segundo obesidade global, identificada pelo IMC. A variável explanatória mais importante para explicar o RCV aumentado, tanto segundo obesidade global como abdominal, foi o nível de atividade física; enquanto a paridade foi importante para explicar o RCV aumentado segundo obesidade global e a idade, segundo obesidade abdominal. / Purpose: to identify cardiovascular risk (CVR) and its relationship to climacteric period, age, educational level, parity, physical activity level, tobacco smoking and hormone therapy, in women aged 40-65 years old, attended in outpatient clinics from São Paulo, Brazil. Methods: the dependent variables were: CVR, according to body obesity, assessed by body mass index (BMI) and by body fat percentage (%BF), and CVR, according to abdominal obesity, assessed by waist/hip ratio (WHR) and by waist circumference (WC). The main explanatory variable was climacteric period and the control variables were: age, educational level, parity, physical activity level, tobacco smoking and hormone therapy. The multiple regression analysis were performed at software STATA 9.0, by the stepwise process. Results: higher CVR assessed by body obesity prevalence was 32,0% (BMI) and 24,7% (%GC); according to abdominal obesity, was 49,0% (WHR) and 64,0% (WC). In the final models, the variables associated with higher CVR, assessed by body obesity, were climacteric period, physical activity level, parity and educational level (BMI) and physical activity level and parity (%BF). According to abdominal obesity, the variables associated with higher CVR were physical activity level, educational level and age (WHR) and physical activity level, parity and age (WC). Conclusion: the most important variable to explain higher CVR was physical activity level, according to body and abdominal obesity, while the parity was important to explain higher CVR according to body obesity and the age to explain higher CVR according to abdominal obesity.

L’obésité abdominale est associée à de nombreuses complications métaboliques, telles que la résistance à l’insuline, le diabète de type 2 et les maladies cardiovasculaires. Récemment, il a été suggéré que ces anomalies métaboliques sont étroitement associées à la taille des adipocytes, cellules constitutives du tissu adipeux. En effet, plusieurs travaux suggèrent que plus les adipocytes sont gros, plus ils produisent des adipokines pro-inflammatoires, responsables de l’inflammation chronique associée à l’obésité. Dans ce contexte, le but de ce travail de thèse était, dans un premier temps, d’établir les répartitions en fréquences de tailles des adipocytes dans différentes situations physiologiques et physiopathologiques et dans différents dépôts adipeux à l’aide du Multisizer IV Coulter counter et dans un second temps de corréler la taille des adipocytes à leurs fonctions physiologiques. D’une part, nous avons montré que quels que soient les dépôts adipeux, les répartitions en fréquences de tailles des adipocytes ont toutes le même profil, elles sont bimodales avec une population de petits adipocytes (diamètre < nadir) et une population de gros adipocytes (diamètre > nadir). La privation en insuline (diabète de type I) entraînant une diminution de 60% de la masse du tissu adipeux, altére profondément la répartition bimodale en fréquences de tailles des adipocytes. La supplémentation en insuline de ces animaux diabétiques restaure la cellularité du tissu adipeux et la répartition en fréquences de tailles des adipocytes, suggérant un rôle régulateur majeur de l’insuline sur ces paramètres. La restriction calorique partielle, nous a permis de mettre en évidence un phénomène d’hystérésis dans certains tissus adipeux. De plus, à partir des données de restriction calorique prolongée il a été possible d’établir un modèle prédisant la cinétique des changements de tailles des adipocytes et de la répartition en fréquences de tailles. D’autre part, après avoir séparé les adipocytes en deux populations : les gros (diamètre > 50 µm) et les petits adipocytes (diamètre < 50 µm) nous avons montré que les petits adipocytes sont plus sensibles à l’insuline que les gros. Nous avons aussi constaté que les gros adipocytes sont plus lipolytiques que les petits adipocytes. Ces données sont en accord avec le modèle établi montrant que les échanges avec le micro-environnement tissulaire sont surtout dépendants de la surface des membranes cellulaires. Ainsi, nos résultats mettent en évidence que si la quantité de tissu adipeux est importante, sa qualité, dont la répartition en fréquences de tailles des adipocytes, est également importante et pourrait servir de paramètre prédictif du développement des désordres métaboliques. / Abdominal obesity is associated with several metabolic complications such as insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Recently, it has been suggested that these metabolic abnormalities are closely related to the size of adipocytes, cells constituting adipose tissue. Indeed, numerous studies suggested that the more adipocytes are larger, the more they produce pro-inflammatory adipokines which are responsible for obesity-associated chronic inflammation. In this context, the aim of this work was, in the first time, to establish the size frequency distributions of adipocytes in different physiological and pathological situations and in different fat depots using the Coulter counter Multisizer IV, and in the second time to correlate the size of the adipocytes to their physiological functions. On the one hand, we have shown that, all adipocyte size frequency distributions have the same profile regardless of fat depots, they are bimodal with both the population of small adipocytes (diameter < nadir) and the population of large adipocytes (diameter > nadir). Deprivation of insulin (type I diabetes) resulting in a decrease of 60% of adipose tissue mass, profoundly alters the bimodal distribution of adipocyte size frequency. Insulin supplementation of these diabetic animals restores cellularity of adipose tissue and the size-frequency distribution of adipocytes, suggesting a major regulatory role of insulin on these parameters. Partial caloric restriction has allowed us to a hysteresis phenomenon in some adipose tissues. In addition, following data from extended caloric restriction it has been possible to develop a model predicting the kinetic of changes concerning both the size of adipocytes and the frequency distribution. On the other hand, after separating the adipocytes in two populations: large (diameter > 50 microns) and small adipocytes (diameter < 50 microns), we have shown that small adipocytes are more insulin-sensitive than large ones. We also observed that larger adipocytes are more lipolytic than smaller ones. These data are in agreement with the established model showing that the interactions with the tissue microenvironment are mainly dependent on the surface of cell membranes. Thus, our results show that if the amount of adipose tissue is important, the quality which noticed by the adipocyte size frequency distributions is also important and could be used as a marker to predict the development of metabolic disorders.