L'application du procédé SLM est limitée par la difficulté à contrôler le procédé. Son application aux céramiques est particulièrement difficile en raison de leur faible absorption au laser et de leur faible résistance au choc thermique. La maîtrise de ce procédé nécessite une compréhension complète du transfert de chaleur, de la dynamique des fluides et de la mécanique des solides. Dans ce travail, nous proposons un modèle numérique pour la simulation du procédé SLM appliqué aux céramiques. Le modèle est développé à l'échelle du cordon et avec l'hypothèse d'un lit de poudre continu. Il est basé sur la méthode level set et l'homogénéisation multiphasique, avec laquelle nous sommes capables de suivre l'évolution de l'interface gaz/matière et les transformations de phase. La simulation dévelopée permet d'étudier l'influence des propriétés du matériau et des paramètres du procédé sur la température, la forme du bain liquide, la dynamique des fluides et la mécanique des solides. En dehors de la puissance du laser et de la vitesse de balayage, l'absorption du matériau est également importante pour la thermique et la forme du bain liquide. Avec la dynamique des fluides, la forme convexe du cordon est obtenue sous tension de surface. Les gouttelettes liquides se forment lors de la fusion de la poudre et créent une instabilité du bain. Ceci entraîne une irrégularité du cordon après solidification. L'effet Marangoni, provoqué par le gradient surfacique de la tension de surface, est étudié. Son influence sur la répartition de la température, la forme du bain liquide et la régularité du cordon est évoquée. Cet effet peut lisser la surface du cordon avec ∂γ/∂T négatif. En augmentant la vitesse de balayage, la surface du cordon devient plus irrégulière. L'effet de « balling » est reproduit avec une vitesse de balayage élevée. Cela peut être utile pour trouver le régime donnant une forme de cordon régulière étant données la puissance et la vitesse du laser. Le défaut de fissuration est délétère dans la fabrication additive. L'utilisation d'un laser auxiliaire peut aider à éviter ce défaut en diminuant la contrainte de traction maximale. Le mode de fonctionnement de ce laser auxiliaire reste un sujet intéressant à étudier et quelques pistes ont été données par les simulations présentées. Le modèle est validé par la comparaison de la forme du bain liquide avec des expériences dans différentes conditions de procédé. Les simulations peuvent également révéler la tendance de variation de la surface du cordon dans certains cas. Par la simulation de la déposition de cordons multiples, l'influence de taux de recouvrement sur la surface d'une couche, la température et l'évolution de contrainte est soulignée. / The application of SLM process is limited by the difficulty of process control. Its application to ceramics is especially challengeable due to their weak absorption to laser and weak resistance to thermal shock. The mastery of this process requires a full understanding of heat transfer, fluid dynamics in melt pool and solid mechanics. In this work, we propose a numerical model for the simulation of SLM process applied to ceramics. The model is developed at the track scale and with the assumption of continuous powder bed. It is based on level set method and multiphase homogenization, with which we are able to follow the evolution of gas/material interface and phase transformation. Simulations are performed to study the influence of material properties and process parameters on temperature, melt pool shape, fluid dynamics and solid mechanics. Apart from the laser power and scanning speed, material absorption is also found to be important to the thermal behavior and the melt pool shape. With the fluid dynamics, convex shape of track cross section is achieved under surface tension. Besides that, liquid droplets collapsing formed by the melting of powder create melt pool instability when falling, thus leading to track irregularity after solidification. The Marangoni effect, caused by surface tension gradient at gas/material interface, is investigated. Its influence on temperature distribution, melt pool shape and track regularity is recognized. One interesting finding is the smoothing effect of track surface with negative ∂γ/∂T. When combine surface tension with scanning speed, track surface becomes more irregular with the increase of scanning speed. The well-known balling effect is reproduced with high scanning speed. This can be helpful to find the regime for regular track shape with given laser power and scanning speed. Cracking defect is deleterious in additive manufacturing. The use of an auxiliary laser can help to avoid this defect by decreasing the maximum tensile stress. The process mode of this auxiliary laser remains an interesting subject to be studied and some guidelines have been given by the presented simulations. The model is validated by the comparison of melt pool shape with experiments under different process conditions. Simulations can also reveal the tendency of track surface variation for certain cases. By the application to multi-track deposition, the influence of hatch distance on layer surface, temperature and stress evolution is emphasized.

Le vaporeformage du méthane (SMR) est encore aujourd’hui la méthode industrielle de synthèse d’hydrogène la plus rentable. L’efficacité globale de ce procédé est cependant limitée par les contraintes techniques intrinsèques au design des unités de production actuelles. Dans un souci constant d’intensification des procédés, des échangeurs-réacteurs intensifiés sont à l’étude chez AIR LIQUIDE. Les progrès dans le domaine des techniques de fabrication additive métallique ont permis d’envisager des unités de production sous formes d’équipements compacts, présentant des canaux millimétriques, qui optimisent les transferts de masse et de chaleur. Pour atteindre des taux de conversion élevés, et ce malgré des temps de contacts réduits, ces structures obligent à développer de nouvelles architectures de catalyseurs. Des phases actives supportées stables et très actives pour la réaction SMR à base de rhodium ont été préparés à partir de supports MgAl2O4 commerciaux. L’étude de l’impact du taux de métal noble, des propriétés des supports, ainsi que des traitements thermiques a permis de comprendre les interactions existantes entre les phases actives et les supports oxydes. Les propriétés catalytiques en condition de reformage ont pu être reliées aux morphologies des phases actives synthétisées. La fonctionnalisation des canaux des échangeurs-réacteurs millistructurés par une méthode proche du dip-coating est détaillée dans cette thèse. Des formulations de suspensions adaptées, aux comportements rhéologiques maîtrisés, ont permis avec des protocoles de dépôt adéquats, de rendre fonctionnel des échangeurs-réacteurs de taille semi-industrielle qui ont été testés avec succès durant plusieurs centaines d’heures. / The Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) process is still today the most profitable industrial synthesis process of hydrogen. The efficiency of this technique is however facing intrinsically technical limitations due to the design of production units. In order to intensify the global process, exchangers-reactors are under investigation at AIR LIQUIDE. Thanks to recent progresses in metallic additive manufacturing, new compact equipment can be designed. Structures made of millimetric channels allow optimizing heat and mass transfers. New catalyst architecture design needs to be developed to reach high conversion rates despite extreme low contact times in such devices. Stable and highly active rhodium-based catalysts supported on spinel MgAl2O4 have been prepared in this aim. The impact of rhodium loading, properties of supports, as well as thermal treatments have allowed us understanding active phase and support interactions. Catalyst properties under SMR conditions have been linked to active phase morphologies. Functionalization of exchangers-reactors channels through a dip-coating technique has been detailed in this thesis. The formulations of suspensions of washcoat have been optimized thanks to rheological behavior characterizations to achieve very low viscosities. A procedure to deposit homogeneous coatings with controlled thicknesses on the internal channels has been validated on a pilot structure. These new intensified exchangers-reactors have been successfully tested for methane conversion during several hundred of hours.

La fabrication additive est un procédé d’élaboration permettant la mise en forme d’une pièce par ajout de matière, par empilement de couches successives. Bien que de plus en plus de polymères puissent être mis en œuvre par cette technologie, les polymères chargés en sont quasiment absents, alors qu’ils sont largement utilisés dans les autres types de procédés de mise en forme. Les objectifs scientifiques et technologiques du projet concernent (i) une meilleure compréhension des relations entre le comportement rhéologique de systèmes polymères et leur aptitude à la mise en forme par les technologies de fabrication additive FDM, (ii) le développement de formulations de base de polymères bio-sourcés adaptées à ces technologies et apportant une multifonctionnalité. Le premier objectif nécessitera tout d’abord d’identifier les conditions (température, gradients de vitesse, nature des contraintes, …) imposées par les procédés considérés puis de mettre en place et/ou d’adapter les moyens de caractérisation du comportement rhéologique des systèmes polymères dans ces conditions. Le comportement rhéologique en cisaillement mais aussi en élongation pourra être considéré. Il conviendra en particulier d’identifier les compromis nécessaires entre comportement adapté à l’écoulement en filière ou en buse et aptitude à la fusion et à la consolidation couche par couche. Enfin, l’effet des différentes voies de fonctionnalisation envisagées sur le comportement rhéologique et thermique et donc sur l’aptitude à la mise en forme devra être analysé. De façon à adapter les polymères bio-sourcés à un large panel d’applications, diverses voies de fonctionnalisation seront considérées, basées sur le compoundage avec des charges particulaires. / Additive manufacturing process is a preparation for the forming of a workpiece by the addition of material, by stacking successive layers. Although more and more polymers can be implemented by this technology, the filled polymers are practically absent, so they are widely used in other types of shaping methods. The scientific and technological objectives of the project are (i) a better understanding of the relationship between the rheological behavior of polymer systems and their ability to shaping by additive manufacturing technologies FDM, (ii) the development of polymer-based formulations biosourced adapted to these technologies and providing multifunctionality. The first goal will require first of all to identify the conditions (temperature, velocity gradients, nature constraints ...) imposed by the processes considered then to implement and / or adapt the means of characterization of the rheological behavior of polymer systems under these conditions. The rheological behavior in shear but also in elongation may be considered. It should in particular identify the necessary compromise between behavior adapted to the flow at the die or nozzle and meltability and consolidation layer by layer. Finally, the effect of different ways of functionalization considered on the rheological and thermal behavior and thus on the ability to formatting will be analyzed. In order to adapt the bio-sourced polymers for a wide range of applications, various routes of functionalization will be considered based on compounding with particulate fillers.

La fabrication additive (FA) a initié un changement de paradigme dans le secteur de la conception et de la fabrication des produits grâce à ses capacités uniques. Cependant, l'intégration des technologies de fabrication additive dans la productique traditionnelle doit permettre d'assurer une production fiable et une qualité reproductible des pièces. Dans cette optique, la modélisation et la simulation jouent un rôle essentiel pour améliorer la compréhension de la nature complexe et multi-physique des procédés de fabrication additive. De plus, l’intégration simultanée de différents modèles multi-physiques et de la prise en compte du procédé utilisé et de la pièce constituent toujours un défi pour la modélisation de ces technologies. L’objectif final de cette recherche est de développer et d’appliquer une approche de modélisation permettant une modélisation intégrée de la fabrication additive. Cette thèse analyse le processus de développement du produit et présente une méthodologie innovante intitulée ‘Dimensional Analysis Conceptual Modeling’ (DACM) pour modéliser les produits et les procédés de fabrication aux différentes étapes de conception. La méthode a été développée pour permettre la simulation de modèles multi-physiques. Elle intègre également une recherche systématique de faiblesses et de contradictions dans une première évaluation des solutions potentielles au problème. La méthodologie développée est appliquée dans plusieurs études de cas afin de présenter des modèles intégrant les processus de fabrication additive et les pièces à fabriquer. Les résultats montrent que la méthodologie DACM permet de modéliser distinctement et simultanément le produit et le processus de fabrication. Cette méthodologie permet aussi d'intégrer les modèles théoriques et expérimentaux déjà existants. Elle contribue à la conception pour la fabrication additive et aide le concepteur à anticiper les limites des procédés et de la conception plus tôt dans les premières étapes de développement du produit. En particulier, cela permet de prendre les bonnes décisions selon les différentes possibilités d'optimiser la conception des pièces et le paramétrage des machines de fabrication additive pour aboutir à la solution la plus adaptée. La méthode permet également de détecter la nécessité de reconcevoir des machines existantes en détectant les faiblesses de celles-ci. Cette thèse montre que la méthode DACM peut être potentiellement utilisée comme une approche de méta-modélisation pour la fabrication additive.Mots-clés: Fabrication Additive, Conception Pour la Fabrication Additive, Modélisation Intégrée, Développement de Produit, Dimensional Analysis Conceptual Modeling Framework / Additive manufacturing (AM) has created a paradigm shift in product design and manufacturing sector due to its unique capabilities. However, the integration of AM technologies in the mainstream production faces the challenge of ensuring reliable production and repeatable quality of parts. Toward this end, Modeling and simulation play a significant role to enhance the understanding of the complex multi-physics nature of AM processes. In addition, a central issue in modeling AM technologies is the integration of different models and concurrent consideration of the AM process and the part to be manufactured. Hence, the ultimate goal of this research is to present and apply a modeling approach to develop integrated modeling in additive manufacturing. Accordingly, the thesis oversees the product development process and presents the Dimensional Analysis Conceptual Modeling (DACM) Framework to model the product and manufacturing processes at the design stages of product development process. The Framework aims at providing simulation capabilities and systematic search for weaknesses and contradictions to the models for the early evaluation of solution variants. The developed methodology is applied in multiple case studies to present models integrating AM processes and the parts to be manufactured. This thesis results show that the proposed modeling framework is not only able to model the product and manufacturing process but also provide the capability to concurrently model product and manufacturing process, and also integrate existing theoretical and experimental models. The DACM framework contributes to the design for additive manufacturing and helps the designer to anticipate limitations of the AM process and part design earlier in the design stage. In particular, it enables the designer to make informed decisions on potential design alterations and AM machine redesign, and optimized part design or process parameter settings. DACM Framework shows potentials to be used as a metamodeling approach for additive manufacturing.

Le procédé de fusion laser sélective (SLM) est un procédé de fabrication additive des matériaux métalliques de type « Lit de poudre ». Il s’inscrit dans le concept de l’usine 4.0 et s’oppose aux procédés d’élaboration conventionnels où la matière est soustraite, déformée ou moulée. A partir d’un modèle numérique, les pièces sont élaborées couche par couche par ajout de matière. Le procédé SLM possède d’indéniables avantages car il permet de réaliser des économies de matière, de réduire les coûts de transport et d’élaborer des produits de petites tailles et/ou de formes complexes. Il s’inscrit également dans le concept de personnalisation de masse et de relocalisation des usines à proximité des lieux de consommation. Il souffre cependant d’un manque de répétabilité et de contrôle des propriétés des matériaux élaborés, ce qui entrave son développement à une plus grande échelle. Cela vient principalement du fait que les propriétés résultantes dépendent d’interactions complexes et encore mal cernées entre les caractéristiques des poudres entrantes, les paramètres du procédé et les paramètres microstructuraux. Dans le cadre de ces travaux de thèse, nous proposons de mieux comprendre les liens qui existent entre les paramètres d’élaboration de pièces en titane Ti-6Al-4V, la formation de porosités, leur microstructure et leurs propriétés structurales. Pour ce faire, une étude paramétrique a été conduite afin d’évaluer l’influence des paramètres puissance du laser, vitesse de balayage et espacement de lasage. Trois densités d’énergie ont été considérées (50, 75 et 100 J/mm3) et une stratégie de lasage rotative a été imposée. A partir d’une approche originale combinant des analyses 2D de faciès de rupture et des analyses 3D par tomographie X des pièces, deux mécanismes de formation des porosités ont été identifiés et caractérisés pour une densité d’énergie de 50J/mm3 : le manque de fusion et la dénudation. Dans ce cas, il est montré que la distribution spatiale des porosités est liée à la stratégie de lasage et que la fraction et la densité volumiques des porosités dépendent du couple « puissance du laser » et « vitesse de balayage ». Pour des densités d’énergie plus élevées (75 et 100 J/mm3), deux nouveaux mécanismes de formation des porosités ont été identifiés : celui par surfusion de la matière et celui par piégeage de gaz. Au niveau microstructural, l’ensemble des échantillons analysés présentent une structure martensitique α’ peu texturée. Pour une même densité d’énergie, la morphologie des grains de la phase mère β et la taille des aiguilles martensitiques α’ dépendent des paramètres du procédé. Une étude fine menée en Microscopie Electronique en Transmission a permis d’identifier avec certitude des macles non répertoriées dans la littérature. Il s’agit premièrement de macles de type {01-11} <-211-1>a' ou {0-111} <2-1-11>a’ avec une rotation de 57° autour de l’axe de zone [2-1-10]a’, un cisaillement dû au maclage de 0,542, et deuxièmement, de macles de type {01-11}<-12-15>a’ ou {-1011}<7-814>a’ avec une rotation de 63° autour de l’axe de zone [1-2-21]a’ et un cisaillement dû au maclage de 0,963. Ces macles témoignent d’un phénomène de relaxation des contraintes qui seraient induites par les vitesses de refroidissement importantes et la transformation martensitique. Au niveau des propriétés mécaniques, la présence de porosités diminue la ductilité du matériau, même pour des fractions de porosités relativement faibles (<1%). La reconstructions 3D d’un échantillon rompu par traction montre qu’il existe un lien biunivoque entre la répartition des porosités et le chemin des fissures. Enfin, les porosités formées par manque de fusion et par dénudation sont plus préjudiciables aux propriétés mécaniques que celles formées par surfusion. Ceci est à mettre en parallèle avec les fractions volumiques et les morphologies des porosités pour chaque mécanisme de formation. / Selective Laser Melting (SLM) is an additive manufacturing process of metallic parts based on powder bed fusion (PBF). SLM is part of the industry 4.0 concept and is opposed to conventional manufacturing processes where the material is either subtracted, deformed or molded. From a numerical model, parts are built by material addition layer by layer. The SLM process has incontestable advantages as it offers the possibility of making small parts with complex shapes and reducing transportation costs. It also promotes mass customization and relocation of factories close to customers. However, the SLM process suffers of a lack of repeatability and control of manufactured parts which hinders its development on a larger scale. Among the possible reasons, the control of part properties is made difficult since it depends on many complex interactions between the input powders, the process parameters and microstructural features.In this work, we propose to investigate the relationships between manufacturing process parameters of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy parts, the mechanisms of formation of their voids, their microstructure and their structural properties. In this purpose, a parametric study was conducted to evaluate the influence of laser power, scanning speed and hatch-spacing parameters. Three energy densities were considered (50, 75 and 100J/mm3), and a rotative scanning strategy was chosen.From an original approach based on 2D fracture surface and 3D-Xray tomography analysis of parts, two mechanisms of pore formation were identified and investigated. For 50J/mm3, the spatial distribution of voids is shown to be dependent to the scanning strategy. The volume fraction and density of pores depend on the laser power and the scanning speed. For higher energy densities (75 and 100 J/mm3), two new mechanisms of pore formation were identified corresponding to over-melting and gas trapping.Concerning the microstructure, the whole characterized specimens have shown a weakly textured α’ martensitic structure. For a same energy density, prior-β grain morphology and α’ needle size were revealed to be dependent to the process parameters. Fine investigations carried out by Transmission Electron Microscopy underscored the presence of un-identified twins in literature. They are first, twins of type {01̅11} <2̅111̅>a’ or {01̅11} <21̅1̅1>’ with a rotation of 57° around the [21̅1̅0]a’ zone axis and a twinning shear of 0,542, and secondly, twins of type {011̅1}<7̅ 21 14 11>a’ or {1̅011}<11 14 1̅ 0>a’ with a rotation of 63° around the [12̅2̅1]a’ zone axis and a twinning shear of 0,963. These twins would indicate that a stress relaxation phenomenon takes place, induced by the high cooling rates and the martensitic transformation.Concerning mechanical properties, porosity affects the material ductility. Its behavior is more brittle even when the volume fraction of voids is small (<1%). 3D reconstruction of a tensile broken specimen attests a one to one relationship between the spatial distribution of pores and the crack path. Finally, pores formed by a lack of fusion and denudation are more detrimental for mechanical properties than over melting ones. This analyze is also performed by comparison with the volume fraction and the morphology of voids corresponding to each mechanism of formation.

O objetivo desse trabalho consiste na validação experimental e implementação de melhorias de projeto, de um cabeçote de extrusão com rosca de seção variável usada em uma impressora 3-D experimental. O primeiro estudo realizado envolveu a análise térmica por elementos finitos do sistema rosca-cilindro, com o intuito de se verificar a implantação de um sistema de refrigeração com suportes aletados ao longo do barril que têm como função a dissipação de calor gerado no processo de extrusão, por convecção forçada. O perfil de temperaturas ao longo do barril também é um resultado importante e uma validação experimental foi realizada com medições realizadas em termopar. Foram realizados testes de extrusão utilizando o polímero Nylon 12 PA e o polímero biodegradável PCL (Polycaprolactona), que permitiram a avaliação da estrutura do material extrudado, através da visualização de imagens de MEV (Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura) e avaliação da forma dos filamentos. Scaffolds foram fabricados utilizando o sistema em estudo e submetidos à mesma avaliação com imagens de MEV. Por meio de um DOE (Design of Experiments) foram conduzidas medições de diâmetros dos filamentos extrudados, que revelaram o fenômeno de inchamento de extrudado, para o menor diâmetro de bico. Com o maior diâmetro do bico de deposição foram gerados scaffolds, com porosidade controlada e também foi demonstrada a capacidade de extrusão e deposição de materiais compósitos (polimérico/cerâmico). O cabeçote demonstrou, portanto, sua capacidade em aplicações de pesquisa, que envolvam geração de filamentos e protótipos poliméricos e cerâmicos. Esses materiais encontram aplicações desde a engenharia tecidual até aplicações industriais, com ou sem controle de porosidade. Um estudo preliminar sobre a melhoria do projeto mecânico do cabeçote incluiu a redução do seu peso, por meio da troca do sistema de redução, com a escolha de um redutor cicloidal ou harmônico e retirada de material da estrutura, o que deve reduzir o peso do sistema em aproximadamente 38%. / This work presents the experimental validation and design improvements of an extrusion head with variable section applied of an experimental 3-D printer. The first study was the thermal analysis by finite elements of the barrel-screw system. The aim is to verify the cooling capacity resulted from the implantation of a cooling system with finned supports along the extrusion barrel. This cooling system should dissipate the heat generated in extrusion process by forced convection. The temperature profile along the barrel is also an important result and an experimental validation was performed with measuring obtained by a thermo-coupling. Extrusion trials were performed processing Nylon 12 PA and a biodegradable polymer PCL (Polycaprolactone). In these trials, the structure of extruded material, in filament shape, was evaluated using SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) images. Scaffolds generation were performed and these were evaluated with the same method using SEM. A DOE (Design of Experiments) method, in which measurements of filaments diameters were conducted, have revealed the extrusion swelling in both nozzles tips used (0.4 and 0.8mm), but with more strong effects for the smaller one.Scaffolds with controlled porosity were generated using the large nozzle tip and the extrusion capacity could be demonstrated, not only with polymers, but also with composites of the type polymer/ceramic.Therefore, it can be indicated that the extrusion head in study can be applied in research fields in which the generation of filaments, polymer and polymer/ceramic prototypes, were necessary as tissue engineering or industrial applications, with or without porosity control. A preliminary study included the weight reduction by changing the reduction system and removing material from the head\'s structure. This study could indicate that these improvements could reduce the total weight of the extrusion head in 38%.

Próteses auriculares tem o objetivo de proporcionar uma maior confiança a pacientes com perdas parciais ou totais da orelha. A aparência realista de uma prótese é fator fundamental para a recuperação psicossocial dos pacientes, pois auxilia na dissimulação da perda. O procedimento convencional de elaboração de próteses auriculares envolve o trabalho de um especialista que utiliza processos manuais para recriar a forma singular de uma orelha. Este é um processo lento, complexo e naturalmente pode ocasionar imperfeições. Este estudo apresenta um procedimento que, a partir de exames de imagem, utiliza técnicas computacionais de reconstrução, espelhamento e inversão de modelos tridimensionais para manufatura aditiva (impressão 3D) de moldes. Os resultados mostram que a prótese elaborada utilizando o processo exibe alto grau de realismo, apresentando 97,8% de similaridade dimensional comparada com a orelha sã do paciente. / Auricular prostheses are intended to provide confidence to patients with partial or total loss of the ear. The realistic appearance of a prosthesis is a key factor for the psychosocial recovery helping in dissimulation of loss. The standard procedure of auricular prosthesis design involves the work of an expert using manual processes to recreate the complex shape of the ear. This slow and complex process can easily lead to imperfections. This study presents a procedure that starting from an image exam uses computational techniques of reconstruction, mirroring and inversion of three-dimensional models for additive manufacturing (3D printing) of molds. The results show that the designed prosthesis using the process has a high level of realism, with 97.8% of similarity compared to the healthy ear of the patient.

No presente trabalho, suportes tridimensionais (scaffolds) de polímero reforçado foram gerados por meio da técnica aditiva por extrusão utilizando duas estratégias de deposição e, posteriormente, foram avaliados morfologicamente, mecanicamente e por meio de ensaios in vitro. Como matriz polimérica do compósito utilizou-se a poli(&#949;-caprolactona) e como reforço, o Biovidro® 45S5. De forma a melhorar a interação interfacial entre a matriz polimérica e a cerâmica, avaliou-se a incorporação de nanofibra de celulose ao biovidro. Os scaffolds foram fabricados seguindo dois métodos diferentes. O primeiro consistiu no pré-processamento do material em extrusora monorrosca, seguida de extrusão direta na impressora 3D experimental Fab@CTI. O segundo consistiu em um único processo de extrusão diretamente no cabeçote de extrusão. A caracterização química do biovidro por espectroscopia de fluorescência de raios-x mostrou eficiência na preparação da biocerâmica e a caracterização da distribuição do tamanho de partícula por espalhamento de luz dinâmica mostrou a obtenção de partículas submicrométricas. Os scaffolds foram caracterizados morfologicamente pela técnica de microscopia eletrônica de varredura, e, pôde-se notar a eficiência na fabricação de geometrias com arquitetura 00/900 e tamanho de poros adequado para a aplicação na engenharia tecidual. Os ensaios mecânicos de compressão evidenciaram melhoras na rigidez com o aumento do teor de biovidro, no caso dos materiais pré-processados por extrusão, além da influência da nanofibra de celulose na melhoria das propriedades mecânicas. Os ensaios biológicos in vitro mostraram que os scaffolds suportam proliferação celular e que o biovidro é responsável pela maior deposição de sais de cálcio extracelular, facilitando a interação do material sintetizado com o tecido ósseo. / In the present work, scaffolds of reinforced polymer were generated by means of the extrusion additive technique using two strategies of deposition and, later, were evaluated morphologically, mechanically and by means of in vitro tests. Poly (&#949;-caprolactone) was used as the polymer matrix of the composite and as a booster, Bioglass® 45S5. In order to improve the interfacial interaction between the polymer matrix and the ceramic, the incorporation of cellulose nanofiber to the bioglass was evaluated. The scaffolds were manufactured following two different methods. The first consisted of the pre-processing of the extruded extruder material followed by direct extrusion into the experimental Fab@CTI 3D printer. The second consisted of a single extrusion process directly on the extrusion head. The chemical characterization of the bioglass by x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy showed efficiency in the preparation of the bioceramics and the characterization of the particle size distribution by dynamic light scattering showed the submicrometric particles. The scaffolds were characterized morphologically by the scanning electron microscopy technique, and it was noted the efficiency in the manufacture of geometries with architecture 00/900 and pore size suitable for application in tissue engineering. The mechanical compression tests showed improvements in stiffness with increasing bioglass content in the case of pre-processed materials by extrusion, as well as the influence of cellulose nanofiber in improving mechanical properties. Biological assays have shown that scaffolds support cell proliferation and that bioglass is responsible for the increased deposition of extracellular calcium salts, facilitating the interaction of the synthesized material with the bone tissue.

La fabrication additive désigne un ensemble de technologies dont les caractéristiques uniques ouvrent des perspectives de conception et de production radicalement innovantes. Certains ont imaginé qu’elle permettrait un jour la fabrication décentralisée et en petites séries d’objets personnalisés aux formes complexes, grâce à des machines flexibles capables de tout fabriquer ou presque, ce qui déclencherait une nouvelle révolution industrielle. Néanmoins, pour l’heure, nous sommes encore dans la phase d’exploration de ce nouveau paradigme techno-industriel.Nous étudions ce sujet au travers de trois instanciations particulières de ces relations inter-firmes. Nous nous intéressons d’abord à des cas où la mise en œuvre des nouvelles technologies s’est déjà opérée. Nous observons alors la transformation des chaînes de valeur où se jouent de nouvelles relations clients-fournisseurs, avec de la désintermédiation. Nous étudions ensuite des alliances multipartenaires au travers desquelles les acteurs mènent une réflexion stratégique collective pour se préparer à la fabrication additive. Si les acteurs travaillent collectivement, ils pensent et développent aussi leur propre stratégie. Enfin, nous nous penchons sur des alliances dyadiques qui visent à combiner des compétences technologiques et des compétences métier afin de rapprocher la technologie et ses applications potentielles, et donc de permettre aux acteurs de mettre en œuvre la fabrication additive pour de nouveaux usages.A partir de ces trois plongées dans des instanciations typées des relations inter-firmes à différents stades d’exploration d’un nouveau paradigme, nous proposons un cadre intégrateur qui théorise le processus itératif et entremêlé par lequel les acteurs explorent et tirent parti du nouveau paradigme techno-industriel, façonnant ainsi les trajectoires technologiques. / Additive manufacturing designates a set of technologies whose unique features open radically innovative design and production possibilities. Some early authors imagined that it would eventually allow decentralized and customized production of objects with complex shapes and in small quantities, thanks to flexible machines that could manufacture about everything. This could, in turn, triggers a new industrial revolution. However, at the present time, we are still in the exploration phase of this new techno-industrial paradigm.Inter-firm relationships appear to be crucial in the exploration of the additive manufacturing new techno-industrial paradigm. We study this exploration processes through the lenses of three specific types of inter-firm relationships.We first focus on value chain relationships. We look at a sector where the implementation of new offerings is already effective. The competitive battle to capture value is raging. Then, we study multipartner alliances where companies engage in a collective strategic exercise to prepare themselves for additive manufacturing. If players work collectively, they also think and develop their own strategy along the way. Finally, we look at dyadic alliances implemented to combine technological and industry capabilities to connect the technologies and potential needs that previously could not be properly served. These alliances allow players to implement additive manufacturing for a few specific applications.Based on these three sets of empirical observations on three different types of inter-firm relationships at three different stages of the exploration of the new paradigm, we present and discuss an integrative theoretical framework that models the exploration of a new techno-industrial paradigm as an iterative and intricate evolution process : the combined actions of the players involved in the exploration of the new paradigm in fact contribute to shape the technological trajectories as they aim at benefitting from the new opportunities offered.

<div>This dissertation addresses two significant issues in the effective application of machine learning algorithms and models for the physical and engineering sciences. The first is the broad challenge of automated modeling of data across different processes in a physical system. The second is the dilemma of obtaining insightful interpretations on the relationships between the inputs and outcome of a system as inferred from complex, black box machine learning models.</div><div><br></div><div><b>Automated Geometric Shape Deviation Modeling for Additive Manufacturing Systems</b></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>Additive manufacturing systems possess an intrinsic capability for one-of-a-kind manufacturing of a vast variety of shapes across a wide spectrum of processes. One major issue in AM systems is geometric accuracy control for the inevitable shape deviations that arise in AM processes. Current effective approaches for shape deviation control in AM involve the specification of statistical or machine learning deviation models for additively manufactured products. However, this task is challenging due to the constraints on the number of test shapes that can be manufactured in practice, and limitations on user efforts that can be devoted for learning deviation models across different shape classes and processes in an AM system. We develop an automated, Bayesian neural network methodology for comprehensive shape deviation modeling in an AM system. A fundamental innovation in this machine learning method is our new and connectable neural network structures that facilitate the transfer of prior knowledge and models on deviations across different shape classes and AM processes. Several case studies on in-plane and out-of-plane deviations, regular and free-form shapes, and different settings of lurking variables serve to validate the power and broad scope of our methodology, and its potential to advance high-quality manufacturing in an AM system.</div><div><br></div><div><b>Interpretable Machine Learning</b></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>Machine learning algorithms and models constitute the dominant set of predictive methods for a wide range of complex, real-world processes. However, interpreting what such methods effectively infer from data is difficult in general. This is because their typical black box natures possess a limited ability to directly yield insights on the underlying relationships between inputs and the outcome for a process. We develop methodologies based on new predictive comparison estimands that effectively enable one to ``mine’’ machine learning models, in the sense of (a) interpreting their inferred associations between inputs and/or functional forms of inputs with the outcome, (b) identifying the inputs that they effectively consider relevant, and (c) interpreting the inferred conditional and two-way associations of the inputs with the outcome. We establish Fisher consistent estimators, and their corresponding standard errors, for our new estimands under a condition on the inputs' distributions. The significance of our predictive comparison methodology is demonstrated with a wide range of simulation and case studies that involve Bayesian additive regression trees, neural networks, and support vector machines. Our extended study of interpretable machine learning for AM systems demonstrates how our method can contribute to smarter advanced manufacturing systems, especially as current machine learning methods for AM are lacking in their ability to yield meaningful engineering knowledge on AM processes. <br></div>