Financial security in retirement is an important social issue, yet many affluent women may have behaviors, attitudes or perceptions that could be detrimental to their financial security—putting them at risk for poverty in their retirement years. A survey was developed and implemented in 2009 to investigate the behaviors, attitudes, and perceptions regarding financial management among affluent ($250,000 or more of household investable assets) United States women in their prime years (aged 50–69) to determine if Social Norms Theory could be applied to this population. Three hypotheses were tested: 1.) most affluent prime-of-life women have “healthy” financial behaviors and attitudes; 2.) the majority of women in this group misperceive the reality, underestimating the percent of their peers who have “healthy” financial behaviors and attitudes; and 3.) the minority of women who have unhealthy financial behaviors/attitudes will be more likely than those who have healthy behaviors/attitudes to misperceive their peers as having unhealthy financial behaviors and attitudes. The results determined that Social Norms Theory does apply to affluent women in their prime years and that a Social Norms Marketing approach may be useful.

L’objectif central de cette thèse est de comprendre les raisons pour lesquelles la corruption est tolérée dans certaines sociétés. Dans cette perspective, il s’avère indispensable de délimiter le concept de corruption qui ne peut être étudié indépendamment du cadre socioculturel de chaque pays, de la qualité des institutions et de la performance de l’État. Face à la défaillance de l’action collective et au coût des politiques étatiques de lutte, une norme sociale de tolérance de la corruption peut émerger dans une société, réfutant ainsi toute intervention publique. Un modèle proposé en théorie des jeux stipule qu’il est irrationnel de ne pas être corrompu dans une société où la corruption est largement répandue. Une corruption défensive, allant de l’acte individuel de paiement d’un pot-de-vin à la pression organisée des groupes d’intérêt, semble être une réaction rationnelle, un sous-produit de l’usage illégitime et répressif du pouvoir étatique. C’est la tolérance à cette corruption défensive, souvent caractérisée par des effets bénéfiques sur le bien-être social,que l’on propose comme réponse rationnelle à la corruption offensive du pouvoir. Le cas emblématique du multi-confessionnalisme au Liban montre que la corruption est acceptée dans les pratiques quotidiennes des libanais car elle se développe comme une contre-stratégie qui permet de contrecarrer la défaillance des institutions publiques et de contourner la fragmentation religieuse et confessionnelle du partage des ressources. Une enquête personnelle sera menée pour justifier l’émergence d’une « culture de cadeaux » et d’une norme sociale de tolérance vis-à-vis de la corruption. / This thesis attempts to explain the question why corruption is tolerated in some societies. At first, it is essential to define the concept of corruption which cannot be studied independently of the social and cultural context of each country, its religious and confessional fragmentation, the quality of its institutions and the performance of its state. Faced with the failure of collective action and the high cost of public policies, a norm of tolerance of corruption can emerge in a society, thus refuting any public intervention. A game theory model proves that it is irrational not to be corrupt in a society where corruption is widespread. A defensive corruption, ranging from paying bribes, to pressure groups, to buying votes, becomes a rational reaction, a byproduct of the repressive and illegitimate use of state power, especially when corruption has beneficial effects on social welfare. It is this defensive corruption that we consider tolerated, in opposition to offensive corruption.The study of the emblematic case of Lebanon shows that corruption in its various forms is accepted in the daily practices of the Lebanese, and it is used against the failure of public institutions and multi-confessional society. A survey has been conducted to justify the emergence of a "gift culture" and a norm of tolerance vis-à-vis of corruption.

Wann und warum verhalten sich Menschen ethisch (in-)korrekt? Die vorliegende Dissertation fasst allgemeine Theorien und experimentelle Befunde (nicht-)kooperativen, (un-)fairen und (un-)ehrlichen Verhaltens zusammen. Hierzu führt Kapitel 1 experimentelle Spiele als rigoroses Instrument zur Untersuchung (un-)ethischen Verhaltens ein. Kapitel 2 zeigt, dass sich kleine Veränderungen in der kontextuellen Rahmung von experimentellen Spielen langanhaltend auf die Kooperationsneigung der Teilnehmer auswirken können. Kontextuelle Rahmungen verändern zudem Verhaltenserwartungen sowie Aufteilungen in nicht-strategischen Situationen. Diese Effekte sind durch Theorien sozialer Normen erklärbar. Kapitel 3 ergründet, warum sich Studierende der Wirtschaftswissenschaften teils egoistischer verhalten als ihre Kommilitonen. Theorien sozialer Normen werden hierbei um die Bereitschaft erweitert, Nonkonformität mittels Sanktionen zu erzwingen. Es wird gezeigt, dass sich Studierende der Wirtschaftswissenschaften und anderer Fächer in ihren Aufteilungsentscheidungen ähnlich häufig mit Fairness beschäftigen und zu ähnlichen Einschätzungen kommen, welche Aufteilung als fair gilt. Sie teilen jedoch weniger großzügig und erwarten dies auch von anderen. Zudem sind sie weniger bereit, als unfair angesehene Aufteilungen zu sanktionieren. Es wird argumentiert, dass sich Studierende der Wirtschaftswissenschaften egoistischer verhalten, weil sie nicht daran glauben, dass sich andere an eine grundsätzlich geteilte Fairnessnorm halten. Kapitel 4 zeigt, dass intrinsische Sanktionen (wie Scham und Schuld) ausreichen, damit sich Menschen ethisch korrekt verhalten. Das Kapitel bietet zahlreiche Antworten zu aktuellen Debatten, wer sich unter welchen Umständen (un-)ehrlich verhält. Es wird gezeigt, dass Ehrlichkeit sowohl von situativen Einflüssen (z.B. Anreizen und Externalitäten) wie von persönlichen Aspekten (z.B. Geschlecht und Alter) und letztlich auch vom experimentellen Paradigma abhängt. / When and why do people engage in (un)ethical behavior? This dissertation summarizes general theories and synthesizes experimental findings on (non)cooperation, (un)fairness, and (dis)honesty. To this end, Chapter 1 introduces experimental games as a rigorous tool for studying (un)ethical behavior. Chapter 2 demonstrates that small changes in the framing of context (e.g., referring to a social dilemma as a competition vs. a team endeavor) can have long-lasting effects on the participants’ propensity to cooperate. Context framing also shapes beliefs about the cooperative behavior of interaction partners and donations in non-strategic allocation decisions. Taken together, the results suggest that social norm theories provide a plausible explanation for cooperation, including its sensitivity to context framing. Chapter 3 investigates why experimental games regularly find that economics students behave more selfishly than their peers. The concept of social norms is thereby extended to include the enforcement of compliance per sanctions. The results indicate that economics students and students of other majors are about equally concerned with fairness and they have similar notions of fairness in the situation. However, economics students make lower allocations, expect others to make lower allocations, and are less willing to sanction allocations seen as unfair. Skepticism mediated their lower allocations, suggesting that economics students behave more selfishly because they expect others not to comply with a shared fairness norm. Chapter 4 shows that intrinsic sanctions (e.g., shame and guilt) can be sufficient for ethical behavior to emerge. The chapter provides answers to many of the ongoing debates on who behaves dishonestly and under what circumstances. The findings suggest that dishonest behavior depends on situational factors (e.g., reward magnitude and externalities), personal factors (e.g., gender and age) as well as on the experimental paradigm itself.

This thesis examines family formation in Scotland, with a focus on having a first birth. I argue that fertility behaviour must be researched as part of a process of family formation across the life course and informed by the conceptual framework of the Theory of Planned Behaviour. Starting from geographical patterns in fertility rates, housing and partnership, I establish relationships between shared social attitudes, partnership, housing, and family formation behaviour. I use cross-sectional and panel data from the Scottish Social Attitude Survey, the Scottish Census, the Scottish Longitudinal Study and the British Household Panel Study. The methodological contribution lies in the use of a Latent Class Analysis to identify shared social attitudes groups, which are then incorporated in more generic models predicting fertility intentions and first birth outcomes. The findings indicate that social attitudes and norms are important for family formation. While the Second Demographic Transition Theory argued that social norms are being replaced by more independent choices, more recent fertility literature has called for more attention to social norms. The current thesis thus supports these recent calls by showing how social norms might be (indirectly) measured in quantitative research. A key focus is on relationships between housing and family formation, especially normative ideas of 'proper' family housing. I demonstrate that family housing is a significant predictor of first births, at least for women. The gendered nature of family formation is also demonstrated by the different indicators found to predict men's and women's fertility intentions and realisations. I conclude that improved understanding of fertility behaviour requires longitudinal research that goes beyond the usual fertility indicators such as partnership and recognises the importance of gender differences, housing, shared social attitudes, and, above all, the continuing relevance of social norms in the family formation process.

Les débits de boissons que l’on préfère les appeler cafés, bars, troquets ou autres font partie de nos sociétés depuis plusieurs siècles. A ce titre ils nous paraissent parfois familier, les connaissons nous vraiment ? A travers le discours d’une quarantaine de personnes qui ont partagé leurs expériences et le sens qu’ils donnent à leurs pratiques, cette thèse propose une exploration des usages en cours des débits de boissons, des raisons qui nous y conduisent jusqu’aux ritualités qui accompagnent les façons d’y consommer. Scindés autour de plusieurs axes qui déterminent les normes comportementales, les débits de boissons ne sont pas vécus ni envisagés de la même façon selon qu’il s’agisse du jour ou de la nuit, que l’on s’y rende seul ou accompagné. Ces axes influent sur les façons de boire, le choix du lieu et les rencontres qui s’y produisent ou non. Cette orchestration variée et pourtant harmonieuse est détaillée au cours de cette recherche offre une réponse originale quant à la place qu’ils occupent dans nos sociétés. / The drinking establishments that we sometimes call cafes or bars have been part of our societies for several centuries. As such they seem to us sometimes familiar but do we really know them ?Through the speech of some forty people who have shared their experiences and the meaning they give to their practices, this thesis proposes an exploration of the current uses of drinking establishments, the reasons that lead us there, to the rituals which accompany the ways of consuming alcohol. Split between several axes that determine behavioral norms, drinking establishments are not experienced or considered in the same way depending on whether it is day or night, whether one goes there alone or accompanied. These axes influence the ways of drinking, the choice of place and the encounters that occur there or not. This varied and yet harmonious orchestration is detailed during this research and offers an original answer as to the place they occupy in our societies.

La représentation de la consommation d’électricité et des comportements associés est abordée sous l’angle des anticipations que l’individu met en œuvre. Selon la théorie des niveaux de construit (Trope & Liberman, 2003) nous avons demandé à des individus d’apprécier leur consommation d’électricité en termes de gestes (bas niveau de construit) et de consommation (haut-niveau de construit) à différentes échelles temporelles (d’aujourd’hui à 15 ans). Dans un premier programme de recherche, les estimations étaient exprimées en termes comparatifs (se comparer à quelqu’un de votre âge). Une distance temporelle longue entraîne des estimations plus désirables dans le sens où les individus (population étudiante et générale) déclarent davantage d’actions chez eux que leurs pairs. Les participants déclarent effectuer plus de gestes et consommer moins d’électricité à long terme plutôt qu'à court terme. Cet effet est annulé par des habitudes pro-environnementales fortes et disparait au-delà de 50 ans. Des feedbacks normatifs permettent de corriger ces estimations. Un second programme de recherche portait sur l’influence de feedbacks normatifs sur la mise en veille de son ordinateur dans un contexte professionnel. Ce type de feedback permet d’obtenir une augmentation importante de mise en veille (jusqu’à un mois après) chez les individus effectuant peu par le passé ce comportement. La promotion de la réduction de la consommation d’électricité peut être renforcée par les niveaux de construit et les feedbacks normatifs. / The representation of electric energy consumption and the-related behaviours is addressed from the perspective of the individual's forecasting. According to the construal level theory (Trope & Liberman, 2003) we asked individuals to assess their electric energy consumption in terms of actions (low level of construal) and consumption (high level of construal) at different time perspectives (from today to 15 years from now). In a first research program, the assessments were expressed comparatively (same as people of my age). A long temporal distance leads to more desirable assessments in that the individuals (students and general population) reported more actions relatively to their peers. Participants stated that they would perform more actions and consume less electric energy consumption in long term rather than short term. This effect is cancelled through strong pro-environmental habits and disappears beyond 50 years old. Normative feedbacks allow for correcting these assessments. A second research program dealt with the influence of normative feedbacks on the use of the computer sleep mode within a professional context. This type of feedback provides significant increase in setting up sleep mode (up to one month after) for individuals that previously didn't do it much. The promotion of energy conservation can be enhanced by construal levels and normative feedbacks.

Shirley Jackson's fiction continues to be placed within the gothic horror genre because of its supernatural and horror images. I contend the major focus of her work is her critique of the social norms constructed for women by an archaic and inauthentic patriarchial system of rules and domestic expectation for women that result in madness for the resisting female.

Des personnes traitées injustement, des biens culturels en danger, la discrimination contre les minorités, l’harcèlement sexuel, l'intimidation et la violence sont seulement quelques comportements incivils et immoraux que nous pouvons témoigner dans les lieux publics. Quelle est notre réaction immédiate ? La présente thèse a examiné les caractéristiques de la personnalité des individus qui expriment leur désaccord et confrontent les auteurs des comportements incivils ou immoraux (Chapitre 1 & Chapitre 2). Nous avons vérifié si ceux qui interviennent ont tendance à être des « râleurs rancuniers » ou des « leaders bien adaptés ». Les deux premières études mesures des nombreuses différences individuelles qui seraient directement impliquées dans la réaction du témoin. Les résultats ont clairement confirmé l'hypothèse du « leader bien adapté ». La tendance des participants à confronter les transgresseurs est en corrélation positive avec la responsabilité sociale, l'acceptation sociale, l'indépendance, la régulation des émotions, la persistance, l'auto-déterminisme, l'âge et le salaire mensuel, mais pas avec l’agressivité. Trois études supplémentaires confirment l'hypothèse du "leader bien ajusté». Altruisme, outrage moral, implication personnelle, libéralisme politique et extraversion sont en relation avec les réactions auto déclarées des gens. Les données ne soutiennent pas l'idée que la haute estime de soi ou le fait d'être agressif serait nécessaire pour faire face à l'auteur d'un comportement incivil/immoral. Nous discutons des implications de ces résultats pour la perpétuation et le changement des normes sociales. Nous avons également examiné l'effet de la distance sociale témoin-transgresseur sur la tendance du témoin à confronter le transgresseur au sujet de son comportement (Chapitre 3). Nous avons présenté 26 comportements incivils et immoraux aux collégiens, lycéens et étudiants à l’université en leur demandant d'indiquer comment ils réagiraient s’ils devaient assister à chacun de ces comportements. Nous avons manipulé la relation avec le transgresseur, qui a été décrit comme soit un ami, soit une connaissance, soit un étranger pour le témoin. Les résultats suggère qu’une relation étroite entre le témoin et l'auteur du comportement incivil/immoral, agrandi la probabilité que le témoin exprime son désaccord. Les résultats parlent du rôle des relations étroites dans la perpétuation des normes sociales. Ils suggèrent également des moyens de réduire les comportements antisociaux dans plusieurs milieux sociaux, scolaires et organisationnels. / People treated unfairly, cultural assets in danger, discrimination against minorities, sexual harassment, bullying and violence are just a few uncivil and immoral behaviors that we can witness in public settings. What is our immediate reaction? The present research examined the personality characteristics of individuals who "speakup" and confront perpetrators of uncivil or immoral behaviors (Chapter 1 & Chapter 2). We tested whether those who intervene tend to be "bitter complainers" or "well-adjusted leaders".The first two studies, measured numerous individual differences that are directly implicated in bystander’s intervention. The results clearly confirmed the well-adjusted leader hypothesis. Participants' self-reported tendency to confront perpetrators correlated positively with social responsibility, acceptance by peers, independent self-construal, emotion regulation, persistence, self-directedness, age, and monthly salary, but not with aggressiveness. Three additional studies provide support for the "well-adjusted leader" hypothesis. Altruism, moral outrage, personal implication, political liberalism, and extraversion were positively related to people's self-reported reactions. The data provided no support for the idea that high self esteemor being aggressive is necessary to confront the perpetrator of an uncivil/immoral behavior. We discuss the implications of these findings for the perpetuation and change of social norms. We also examined the effect of social distance between a bystander and the perpetrator of an uncivil/immoral behavior on the bystander's tendency to "speak up" and confront the perpetrator about his/her behavior (Chapter 3). We presented 26 uncivil and immoral behaviors to middle schoolers, high schoolers and university students and asked them to indicate how they would react if they were to witness each of the behaviors. We manipulated the relationship to the perpetrator who was described as a friend, an acquaintance, or a stranger. Results showed that smaller the social distance between the bystander and the perpetrator of the uncivil/immoral behavior the greater the self-reported likelihood that the bystander will express his/her disapproval to the perpetrator. The findings speak to the role of close relationships in the perpetuation of social norms. They also suggest ways to curb antisocial behaviors in a variety of school and organizational settings.

環保這類型的公益議題，其資源並不如一般企業或是營利單位來的充裕，因此我們更應該重視環保議題之廣告支出所能獲得的效益，希望能在有限的廣告預算之下，取得最佳的效果，促成本研究選擇環保議題作為廣告效果探討主軸的想法。 過去Griskevicius等人對於情緒效果的研究，確實指出消費者所帶有的不同情緒確實對於廣告的效果有所影響。而本研究認為，消費者在做出選購決策時候，其廣告效果除了受到情緒的影響之外，消費者在做出決策當下所處的環境是公開的還是私人的也十分重要。 此外，雖然環保議題逐漸受到重視，但在每個不同的國家、社會之中，其受重視的程度並不相同，因此會存在不同的環保重視程度，而本研究認為這種對環保有著不同重視程度的現象是屬於一種社會規範的概念，期也會影響廣告的效果。 因此根據以上想法，本研究決定以下四個主要研究問題： (一) 探討情緒對於支持環保程度的影響。 (二) 探討決策情境對於支持環保程度的影響。 (三) 探討社會規範對於支持環保程度的影響。 (四) 探討情緒、決策情境以及社會規範之間對於支持環保程度的交互作用效果。 本研究對於以上四個主要研究問題，發展了六個主要假設，透過實驗方法，得到以下五大結論。 1. 若是選擇在網路、電視這類型比較屬於私人環境的媒介播放廣告，或者消費者可以在比較隱私的環境之作出決策的時候，應該選擇能夠喚起觀眾浪漫渴望的愛情片時段來撥放這類廣告，較為有效。 2. 若是當廣告主選擇在公開環境的資訊媒介撥放廣告，或者是消費者的決策與行為會被大眾一同檢視之時，則應該選擇能夠喚起消費者的恐懼情緒的恐怖片時段來撥放廣告。 3. 社會規範對於消費者的行為影響效果顯著，因此在進行環保廣告的動作前，應先透過描述性規範的使用，告知消費者社會中的其他人都是重視環保的。 4. 在私人環境之下，當整體社會中所存在的社會規範是重視環保之時，環保廣告時段的選擇，就應該選在能夠喚起浪漫渴望的愛情片時段，如此才能夠強化廣告的效果。 5. 若是社會中所普遍存在的社會規範是不重視環保的，應該要先透過描述性規範來改變消費者心中所認知的社會規範方向，再進行進一步的環保教育，如此才能收到良好的環保教育效果。 / The public welfare issue such as environmental protection doesn’t have rich resources. We have to pay more attentions on the efficiency of environmental protection advertisement. Griskevicius already indicate that the consumers with different emotions will affect the efficiency of the advertisement. Besides the emotion issue, we believe that different decision- making situations will also affect the efficiency of the advertisement. Finally, we believe “social norms” is another factor which affect the efficiency of the advertisement. Based on the above discussion, we propose four major research questions: 1.To discuss how the emotions affect the degree of support for environmental protection. 2.To discuss how the decision-making situations affect the degree of support for environmental protection. 3.To discuss how the social norms affect the degree of support for environmental protection. 4.To discuss the interactive effects of emotions, decision-making situations and social norms to the degree of support for environmental protection. We use the experimental methods and proposed six hypotheses to find out the answer of the above three research questions. Finally, we got five conclusions: 1.If we want to broadcast the ads on a private media, such as internet and TV channels, we should do this during romantic movie. It will be more efficiency. 2.If we want to broadcast the ads on public media, we should choose the horror movie hours. It will be more efficiency. 3.Social norms have a significant influence on the efficiency of the ads. Before we broadcast the ads, we should use the descriptive norms to educate the consumers that the people in the society are all pay attention to the environmental protection issues. 4.Under the private situation and the environmentally friendly society, we should choose the romance movie hours to broadcast our ads. It will be more efficiency. 5.If we want to broadcast the environmental protection ads in a society which is not environmentally friendly, we should use the descriptive norms to educate the people that the people are all very care about the environmental issues.

Non-compliance with visitor regulations in national parks can have an impact on park conservation and the experience of other park visitors. Park management in Pacific Rim National Park Reserve located on the west coast of British Columbia, Canada is challenged by visitors’ non-compliant behaviour concerning regulations to keep dogs on the leash in the park. Dogs that run free (off-leash) on the beaches of the park disturb migratory shorebirds, and have the potential to habituate wolves to regard dogs as objects of prey. This study investigates why many visitors opt for non-compliance with regulations aimed at conservation. The goal of the study is to contribute new insights that may help park management find workable solutions to deliver the ‘dual mandate’ of managing protected areas both, for conservation and for nature-based tourism. The study is grounded within the context of Lefebvre’s (1991) notions of the production of space, and recent work in animal geography that addresses the changing role of our canine companions in modern society. The methodology combines qualitative and quantitative research applying Fishbein & Ajzen’s (2010) theory of planned behaviour (TPB). The research is presented using a journal format, which unavoidably implies some repetition of information but allows for the different sections to be read as stand-alone documents. The thesis starts with an introductory chapter. This is followed by a book chapter published in Domesticated Animals & Leisure (Carr, 2015 in press) that reports highlights from qualitative research exploring why park visitors appear reluctant to comply with on-leash rules. Results reveal the beach as a contested space, driven by a strong off-leash social norm. Chapter Three is a journal article format paper that reports on a quantitative survey based on the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) to identify beliefs that underlie visitor behaviour. Results indicate that habit, with respect to dog leashing when at home and on previous visits to the park, appear to impact the ability of the model to predict future behaviour. Chapter Four is a second journal article format paper where it is suggested that ambivalence, the presence of conflicting behavioural beliefs, influences the relation between behavioural beliefs and attitudes in the TPB, resulting in non-compliance behaviour. A concluding chapter summarizes how results presented in the three main chapters contribute to the body of knowledge on animal geography, compliance and research using the TPB, as well as suggesting techniques that park staff should consider for managing visitor behaviour under situations of apparent non-compliance. / Graduate