The Kimberley Process Certification Scheme was born out of international security concerns triggered by rebel groups that were using the proceeds of rough diamonds to fund conflict. Rebel groups used rough diamonds, acquired through gross human rights abuses, to fund conflicts aimed at overthrowing legitimate governments. The situation was particularly calamitous and ruinous in Angola, Sierra Leone, Liberia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In response to this situation a unique coalition of governments, civil society groups and stakeholders in the diamond industry, came together with the support of the United Nations and established a scheme to separate illicitly acquired diamonds from legally traded diamonds. The historical situation at the time allowed the KPCS to define conflict diamonds as "rough diamonds used by rebel movements or their allies to finance conflict aimed at undermining legitimate governments". However, the exploitation of Marange diamonds in Zimbabwe shows that the use of the proceeds of so-called conflict in diamonds is not limited to rebel movements aiming to wield power but such conflict can be political, economic and military in nature. In Zimbabwe, there was a link between human rights abuses and the ZANU PF led government. ZANU PF financed terror using Marange diamonds. There was international dissatisfaction with the way the KPCS scheme certified Marange diamonds. The USA maintained sanctions on Zimbabwe and Global Witness withdrew from the scheme in protest over the refusal of the scheme to evolve. On the other hand, some participant countries applauded the scheme for its work in certifying Marange diamonds. This study evaluates the efficacy of the scheme in curbing conflict diamonds brought into legal trade by legitimate governments. The study concludes that there is need for reform in the KPCS to successfully separate conflict diamonds from clean diamonds in the face of changing forms of conflict. In meeting its objective, the KPCS applies an exclusion mechanism where participants of the scheme do not trade with non-participants. The World Trade Organisation (WTO) rules prohibit discrimination amongst participants and the KPCS clearly violated this rule. Scholars have debated human rights exceptions in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). There is strong legal support for the idea that the KPCS is justified under GATT article XX and XI. The KPCS is presently operating under a waiver granted from by the WTO under article IX (3) and (4). Another challenge the scheme faces is the legal nature of the scheme. Scholars do not agree on whether to classify the scheme as hard law or soft law. There is a need for clarity on the legal nature of the scheme. / LLM (Import and Export Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The Kimberley Process Certification Scheme was born out of international security concerns triggered by rebel groups that were using the proceeds of rough diamonds to fund conflict. Rebel groups used rough diamonds, acquired through gross human rights abuses, to fund conflicts aimed at overthrowing legitimate governments. The situation was particularly calamitous and ruinous in Angola, Sierra Leone, Liberia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In response to this situation a unique coalition of governments, civil society groups and stakeholders in the diamond industry, came together with the support of the United Nations and established a scheme to separate illicitly acquired diamonds from legally traded diamonds. The historical situation at the time allowed the KPCS to define conflict diamonds as "rough diamonds used by rebel movements or their allies to finance conflict aimed at undermining legitimate governments". However, the exploitation of Marange diamonds in Zimbabwe shows that the use of the proceeds of so-called conflict in diamonds is not limited to rebel movements aiming to wield power but such conflict can be political, economic and military in nature. In Zimbabwe, there was a link between human rights abuses and the ZANU PF led government. ZANU PF financed terror using Marange diamonds. There was international dissatisfaction with the way the KPCS scheme certified Marange diamonds. The USA maintained sanctions on Zimbabwe and Global Witness withdrew from the scheme in protest over the refusal of the scheme to evolve. On the other hand, some participant countries applauded the scheme for its work in certifying Marange diamonds. This study evaluates the efficacy of the scheme in curbing conflict diamonds brought into legal trade by legitimate governments. The study concludes that there is need for reform in the KPCS to successfully separate conflict diamonds from clean diamonds in the face of changing forms of conflict. In meeting its objective, the KPCS applies an exclusion mechanism where participants of the scheme do not trade with non-participants. The World Trade Organisation (WTO) rules prohibit discrimination amongst participants and the KPCS clearly violated this rule. Scholars have debated human rights exceptions in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). There is strong legal support for the idea that the KPCS is justified under GATT article XX and XI. The KPCS is presently operating under a waiver granted from by the WTO under article IX (3) and (4). Another challenge the scheme faces is the legal nature of the scheme. Scholars do not agree on whether to classify the scheme as hard law or soft law. There is a need for clarity on the legal nature of the scheme. / LLM (Import and Export Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Master of Arts / Department of Economics / Tracy M. Turner / The report examines the extent to which the United States market for tradable pollution permits has been an efficient way to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions from coal-burning power plants. To do so, this report first provides background information on the effects of SO2 emissions on the environment in the United States. It discusses the initial attempt with the 1970 Clean Air Act to reduce these emissions and its degree of success. The details of the 1990 Amendments are then given. The economic theory behind the different methods of pollution control (quantity regulation, technology mandate, taxation, and emissions restriction through tradable permits) is explained and their efficiency regarding consumer and producer surplus is contrasted. The report then reviews published articles regarding the topic at hand. The U.S. Acid Rain Program has been found to be very efficient in its ability to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions at a low cost to the producers.

The development of techniques for colloidal nanoparticle synthesis has allowed scientists to fabricate materials that can manipulate light on a scale that is small even compared to the wavelength of the light itself. This ability has led to the development of myriad and diverse applications of nanostructures in wide-ranging fields. This thesis focuses on the investigation and exploitation of nanoscale material properties in the fields of medicine and energy. The unique optical properties of nanoparticles arise from their size and their high surface area to volume ratios compared to bulk materials. As a result of this relationship, the surface characteristics of nanoparticles generally dominate their properties, whereas in bulk materials the surface atoms have very little bearing on the properties of the composite. Chapter 1 gives an introduction to nanoparticles and their optical properties, including a discussion of the plasmon resonance and the properties imbued upon nanoparticles possesing such a resonance as well as the applicability of these properties that will be explored in the subsequent chapters. Chapter 2 presents a study of the interaction of cationic, hydrophobic gold nanoparticles as probes to elucidate specific regions of interest on cell surfaces. The high imaging contrast of gold nanoparticles in electron microscopy allows for visual, macroscopic observation of the aggregation patterns formed by these nanoparticles on cell surfaces. Plasmon resonant coupling between proximal nanoparticles is exploited in order to monitor nanoprobe binding and localization over time with the use of extinction spectroscopy. The role of surface proteins in the nanoparticle-cell surface interaction is elucidated, generating composite data with relevance in pharmaceutical development and pharmacokinetics. Additionally, bacteria strain-dependent toxicity is observed and subsequently investigated for smaller gold nanoparticle probes, demonstrating a potential use for nanoparticles as strain-specific antibiotics. The development of affordable, effective antibiotic technology is one of the major scientific challenges of our time; infections from pathogen-infested drinking water alone account for millions of deaths each year worldwide. In Chapter 3, we investigate the use of titanium dioxide as an inexpensive method to harness solar energy to split water into reactive species and thereby decontamitate solutions of E. coli. Though titanium dioxide is an excellent catalyst for water splitting, it requires UV irradiation, which is fairly lacking in the solar emission spectrum. Further, recuperation of titanium dioxide nanoparticles from solution is non-trivial, and its immobilization into a film greatly limits its surface area and charge carrier efficiency, thereby limiting its activity. We treat both the poor visible light absorption capability as well as the surface area limitation in this study. CdS semiconductor nanocrystals are used to extend the absorption edge of TiO₂ further into the visible light region of the spectrum by providing for lower-energy photon absorption and charge injection into titanium dioxide. TiO₂ is also electrochemically anodized to generate TiO₂ nanotube arrays, which have greatly increased surface area as well as more efficient charge transfer properties compared to thin films of TiO₂ nanoparticles. The utility of nanoparticles in increasing the light absorption of other systems continues as a theme in the work presented in the next two chapters. Chapter 4 ex- amines the plasmonic enhancement of the solar energy conversion in a biomimetic system. In this endeavor, we enhance the photocurrent generated by a light-transducing, proton-pumping protein, bacteriorhodopsin, in a 3-dimensional wet electrochemical cell. First, we increase the overall charge carrier separation with the use of a proton- selective membrane in order to minimize ionic depolarization in the cell. We then use plasmonic nanoparticles to exploit an irregularity in the bacteriorhodopsin photocycle known as the blue light effect. This effect shortens the timescale of the photocyle by more than 99% via blue photon absorption, but it has a very low natural occurrence. Plasmonic nanoparticles tuned to the blue wavelength region increase the flux of blue photons on a local level and thereby increase the overall photocurrent generation. We first examine the importance of nanoparticle field strength to photocurrent enhancement using silver nanospheres with different capping shell thicknesses. We then consider the trade-off between (1) using a nanoparticle with a plasmon resonance tuned perfectly to the blue wavelength region and (2) using a nanoparticle with a stronger field intensity but weaker energetic presence in the blue. By minimizing ionic depolarization, minimizing shielding of the plasmon electromagnetic field, and maximizing the field strength while maintaining the plasmon frequency at the proper wavelength, we demonstrate an enhancement of 5,000-fold in the photocurrent production by bacteriorhodopsin. Chapter 5 explores a variation on the theme of Chapter 4 with an application in cancer therapeutics. Here, a photodynamic cancer drug, protoporphyrin IX (PpIX), is incorporated into complexes with silver nanospheres, gold nanospheres, and gold nanorods. Each of these nanoparticles displays a plasmon resonance in a different region of the spectrum, with consequent different overlap with the absorption or emission of the drug. Photodynamic therapeutic potential is measured in situ and in vivo, and the drug activity is shown to be strongest when drug absorption overlaps with plasmon resonance. Absorption by electronic excitations in the particle crystal lattice is shown to function as a competitive light filter and decrease drug activity. Additionally, the method of attachment of the drug to the nanoparticle is examined. Maximum enhancement of drug activity is shown to require the drug to remain bound close to the nanoparticle surface, where the electromagnetic field strength is highest. This plasmonic enhancement effect on drug activity is shown to outstrip the increase in drug activity seen when using the nanoparticle solely as a delivery platform. In Chapter 6, some synthetic techniques are presented for various nanomaterials. Included are syntheses for gold, silver, and semiconductor nanoparticles of a variety of shapes and sizes as well as for TiO₂ nanotube arrays. The relationship of the ratio of capping agent to metal salt is explored for gold nanospheres, and a method for facile tuning of the longitudinal plasmon resonance displayed by gold nanorods is presented. Synthetic techniques are also presented for the nanoparticles whose applications are explored in the preceding chapters.

Bakgrund: Ren intermittent katetrisering (RIK) är en åtgärd som utförs dagligen på ett flertal patienter inom sjukvården, där sjukvårdspersonal tränger innanför patientens integritetssfär. Patienter har olika personliga gränser för när den personliga integriteten hotas och deras upplevelse vid RIK postoperativt, är sparsamt belyst i tidigare forskning.  Syfte: Att beskriva patienters upplevelse av ren intermittent kateterisering postoperativt. Metod: Datainsamlingen genomfördes med semistrukturerade intervjuer där tretton patienter som kateteriserats postoperativt deltog. Data analyserades med kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Resultat: Resultatet visade att patienterna upplevde vårdpersonalen som kompetenta och de förlitade sig på att vårdpersonalen visste vad som var bäst för patienterna som också kände sig omhändertagna. Det upplevdes vara viktigt att bevara den personliga integriteten och de påtalade vikten av tillräckligt insynsskydd vid kateteriseringen vilket inte alltid varit tillfyllest. Patienterna uttryckte också rädsla dels för smärta i samband med kateteriseringen och dels för att de trodde att det var något fel eftersom de inte kunde urinera. Några beskrev det som en lättnad att få hjälp att tömma blåsan, medan andra kände sig utlämnade och upplevde det som att de inte hade något val. Majoriteten av patienterna hade inte fått/kom inte ihåg att de fått adekvat information om att kateterisering kunde komma att behövas postoperativt och de påtalade vikten av att detta gavs innan operationen. Slutsats: Vårdpersonalens bemötande av patienter som behöver genomgå RIK är av största vikt för patientens upplevelse av vårdsituationen. Vikten av att information ges, som är adekvat och lättförståelig, poängteras. Det är en fördel om patienten görs delaktig i sin vård och att hänsyn även tas till speciella önskemål, som t.ex. kön på den som utför kateteriseringen. / Background: Clean intermittent catheterization is an action that is performed daily on several patients in health care, where health care staff penetrates inside the patients privacy sphere. Patients’ have different personal limits when privacy is threatened and research with focus on the patients experience of clean intermittent catheterization postoperatively is limited. Aim: To describe patients’ experience of clean intermittent catheterization postoperatively. Method: Data collection was conducted by using semi-structured interviews with thirteen patients that had been catheterized postoperatively. Data were analysed using qualitative content analysis. Result: The result showed that patients’ experienced health care staff as competent and they relied on that the medical staff knew what was best for the patients who also felt cared for. It felt to be important to preserve privacy and they stressed the importance of sufficient transparency protection during catheterization which had not always been satisfactory. The patients’ expressed fear partly for pain associated with catheterization and partly because they thought there was something wrong since they were unable to urinate. Some described it as a relief to get help emptying the bladder, while others felt vulnerable and felt that they had no choice. The majority of patients’ had not got or could not remember if they had received adequate information that catheterization could be needed postoperatively and they emphasized importance of that this information was given before surgery. Conclusion: Health care staff treatment of patient’s requiring clean intermittent catheterisation is crucial for the patient's experience of the care situation. The importance that the information given is adequate and understandable was emphasized. It is an advantage if the patient is involved in care and that consideration to special requests, such as that the gender of the person performing catheterisation is considered.

Flow injection systems have great potential for sample handling and analysis in process analytical chemistry. The flexibility and versatility of flow injection manifolds can he utilized in specific applications of sample conditioning and analysis. An overview of various flow injection methods, including flow reversals, double injection, and sequential injection is given, as well as different clean-up methods, such as gas diffusion, solid phase extraction, dialysis, and solvent extraction. Calibration techniques, such as single standard and multivariate calibration are also discussed. In addition, different aspects of process analytical chemistry, in particular sampling and sample handling, are discussed. The papers in this thesis describe a number of flow systems, where gradient-, gas diffusion-, and solid phase extraction- methodologies are applied, all of which have potential use in process analytical chemistry. Paper I is focused on multicomponent analysis of mixtures of organic acids by mathematically extracting information from complex spectra. The selectivity is improved by generating pH-gradients in the flow system. In paper II, the methodology of sensor injection is described and electrochemical and spectroscopic sensors are implemented in a sequential injection system. The method is illustrated by using pH sensors and a glucose electrode. Ammonia and ammonium ions are determined on-line to a bioprocess by gas diffusion in paper III. The benefit of frequent re-calibrations and in-line cleaning sequences are demonstrated. Finally a method for on-line determination of o-diphenols in the kraft process has been developed (paper IV). The o-diphenols are isolated from black liquor samples by solid phase extraction and thereafter transferred to a high performance liquid chromatography system for separation and quantification. / <p>Diss. (sammanfattning) Umeå : Umeå universitet, 1996, Härtill 4 uppsatser</p> / digitalisering@umu

Den 1 januari 2009 infördes en reviderad version av IASB:s redovisningsstandard IAS 1. Den nya versionen, som gäller för alla noterade bolag i EU, ställer krav på att posterna övrigt totalresultat och totalresultat ska presenteras i, eller i nära anslutning till, resultaträkningen. Innebörden av detta är att ett flertal orealiserade poster ska lyftas fram i resultatdelen. Implementeringen innebar en övergång till så kallad Clean Surplus Accounting. Anhängare till denna redovisningsutformning menar att all information som påverkat det egna kapitalet, bortsett från ägartransaktioner, är av intresse för utomstående och därmed bör påverka resultatmåttet. Att övergå till denna redovisningsmetod skulle leda till en högre värderelevans för finansiella rapporter. Syftet med följande uppsats var att utreda om posterna övrigt totalresultat och totalresultat kan konstateras vara värderelevanta och därmed även utreda om redovisning enligt Clean Surplus har ökat relevansen hos finansiella rapporter. I studien har en kvantitativ ansats tillämpats och undersökningarna har baserats på data från stora företag noterade på Stockholmsbörsen mellan åren 2009 - 2014. Förväntningarna har varit att totalresultat är ett relevant mått, men att det historiska resultatmåttet nettoresultat fortsatt är det mått som fungerar bäst som estimering av framtida ekonomisk prestation. I enlighet med förväntningarna visar studien att övergången till redovisning enligt Clean Surplus inte ökat relevansen hos svenska finansiella rapporter.

In the U.S., clean energy goals and the move towards a clean energy economy are causing the electric power sector to add emerging and innovative renewable energy resources into their generation mix. Electric utilities (EU) face a monumental challenge to create, deliver, and capture value from emerging and disruptive technologies. This study seeks to address the impact of solar photovoltaics on the EU market by investigating the role of business model changes within the domain of urban and rural U.S. electric utility organizations. By integrating the evolving EU business model with the Competing Values Framework (CVF), a new lens is created to assess the changing and evolving business behavior within the EU industry. Furthermore, a predictive and prescriptive tool emerges associated with organizational ambidexterity (OA). Finally, four lessons are presented that will help EU leaders become more anticipatory, adaptable, and responsive in this changing renewable environment.

<p>A scholarship from the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) made it possible for the authors to collect primary data on location in Vietnam. Through a study of three organizations we aimed to create an understanding of the Clean Development Mechanism.</p><p>Despite all the natural resources and the potential of renewable energy in Vietnam, a large percent of the electricity production comes from coal and other sources that contribute to carbon dioxide emissions. However, there are organizations working nationwide with implementing renewable energy projects and educating the Vietnamese. Since the birth of carbon market in connection with the Kyoto Protocol new possibilities have emerged as e.g the Clean Development Mechanism. For example high quality carbon offsetting companies are working on projects that reduce greenhouse gas emissions.</p><p>The purpose of this thesis is to study and describe how three organizations are working with renewable energy in rural areas in Vietnam and their connection to Clean Development Mechanism.</p><p>We have carried out an explorative study with an inductive approach. Our three semi-structured interviews were conducted as personal interviews at location in Vietnam. We also had two informative meetings, also in Vietnam. Beyond, we had e-mail correspondents with a number of professionals in their field.</p><p>Due to the heavy bureaucracy the Governmental process rate is slow, which are making projects such as in the area of renewable energy difficult to initiate. Also the Governmental interest in renewable energy as a source of generating electricity is limited. However, new policies are on the agenda which might increase the support for organisations working towards a sustainable development.</p>

<p>China is the second largest emitter of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the world. Since 68% of its primary energy is from coal, China’s average energy intensity is 7.5 times higher than the EU and 4.3 times higher than the US (EU, 2003). Therefore, introducing advanced clean technologies and management to China represents opportunities for Annex I countries to obtain low-cost CERs through CDM projects, and access to one of the largest energy conservation markets in the world.</p><p>The Chinese government considers that the introduction of CDM projects can bring advanced energy technologies and foreign investment to China, thereby helping China’s sustainable development. As energy efficiency is generally low and carbon intensity is high in both China’s energy supply and demand sectors, numerous options exist for cost-effective energy conservation and GHG mitigation with CDM.</p><p>This study has focused on the following areas:</p><p> Clean development Mechanism (CDM) Policy and Implementation in ChinaClean development Mechanism (CDM) Policy and Implementation in ChinaChina’s energy development strategy and climate change, how to make CDM work for sustainable development in China?</p><p> CDM projects in China: policies assessment and recommendations for improvement.</p><p> Energy efficiency CDM projects and renewable CDM projects in China: case studies</p><p>Firstly, this thesis reviewed the current CDM developments in China, attentions were given to the renewable energy, energy efficiency and methane capture project opportunities in China.</p><p>Secondly, this study introduced China’s current policy on CDM implementation, and reviewed its permission requirements, institutional arrangements and project procedures. Based on the observations, this study analyzed the current problems and pointed out the shortfalls of the existing Chinese CDM policies and institutional settings. Options to remove these barriers were given as recommendations. This thesis also looked at the problem of that CDM was designed to have double dividends, to reduce the compliance cost of the Annex I countries and to contribute to sustainable development in Non Annex I Parties, but in reality, CDM has caused concerns about whether it could really support sustainable development in host countries. This study analyzed the reasons underpin this problem.</p><p>Thirdly, based on the analysis made on energy efficiency and renewable CDM project development in China, case study was given on China’s landfill gas to energy project. This study analyzed the perspective of GHG mitigation through landfill gas capture and utilization in China, its opportunities and challenges. Moreover, this study demonstrated how CDM can add value to landfill gas-to-energy projects in China.</p>