The first image depicted of sail are in Egypt and dated to the late fourth millennium BC. Around the third millennium BC the introduction of sail began in the eastern Mediterranean.Some researchers do not believe that sail have existed in Scandinavia until about 8th century AD. The reason for this is because of the lack of archaeological evidence. The question that may be asked is whether it is reasonable that it took about 3000-3500 years for the sail to getto Scandinavia from the eastern Mediterranean? The purpose of this essay is to examine and describe which indications that are available to support the occurrence of the sail in Scandinavia during the Bronze Age. Indications will be studied in trade contacts, rock art boats, and boat constructions.The study is relevant to gain a greater understanding of the Scandinavia´s movements on the open water, trade contacts and boat construction during the Bronze Age.The result reveals that Scandinavia probably had an indirect contact with areas that used sails. Indications for contact with areas in Europe are shown by imports and exports of amber,metals, artefacts and similarities between rock carvings depicting ships. Some of Scandinavia´s rock art boats seem to show attributes such as mast and sails, but it is difficult to get an understanding by looking at the pictures only. One idea is that a change is required in the keel of the boats for sailing. The result reveals that an alternative to keel may have been double steering oars. From an experimental archaeological survey of Bengtsson & Bengtsson (2011), it seems that Scandinavian Bronze Age boats have managed to get sailed. / Den första avbilden av segel finns i Egypten och dateras till ca år 4000 f.Kr. Runt ca år 3000f.Kr. uppkommer segel i östra Medelhavsområdet, Persiska viken och möjligen Indien. I Skandinavien anser en del forskare att segel inte har existerat förrän ca 700 år e.Kr., då inga arkeologiska bevis för mast eller segel förekommer. Frågan som kan ställas är om det är rimligt att seglet har tagit omkring 3000-3500 år att nå Skandinavien från östra Medelhavsområdet? Syftet med studien är att undersöka och redogöra för vilka indikationer som finns för att seglet kan ha förekommit i Skandinavien under bronsåldern. Frågeställningarna har varit: Var Skandinavien i kontakt med områden som nyttjade segel eller hade kunskap om dem under bronsåldern? Vilka belägg finns för att kontakter med områden i Europa harförekommit? Kan hällbilderna från bronsåldern i Skandinavien tolkas ha mast och segel? Vad krävs i en båtkonstruktion för att den skall kunna segla? Har skandinaviska bronsåldersbåtar haft en båtkonstruktion som klarat av segling? Teorin som antagits i föreliggande uppsats har varit Bengtsson & Bengtssons (2011) som antar att segel kan ha uppkommit tidigare i Skandinavien, möjligtvis redan under bronsåldern. Studien utfördes genom en litteraturöversikt och metoden var empirisk och komperativ då forskares åsikter, antaganden och resultat från deras undersökningar jämfördes och presenterades utifrån frågeställningarnai analysen. En avgränsning har funnits genom att undersökningen främst berört områden därmast och segel kan tolkas ha förekommit samt på platser där tidigare forskning behandlat Skandinaviens hällristningar. Ytterligare avgränsning har funnits genom att en ingåendebeskrivning av hur båtkonstruktionen hos bronsåldersbåtarna såg ut, ej har angivits i detalj, utan i stället har de funktioner som ansetts viktiga för en möjlig introduktion av segel i Skandinavien främst undersökts. Resultatet visar utifrån analysen och diskussionen kring frågeställningarna att indikationerframkommer för att möjligheten finns för att segel förekom i Skandinavien under bronsåldern.

To build multi story buildings out of timber is of a common interest in the building sector. Timber as a building material has many profits, such as the low cost, the availability and the ability to recycle it, the low carbon footprint and the workability. Although, when it comes to fire protection of buildings with a timber based structure there are challenges regarding prevention of the spread of fire while timber surface is exposed to fire. There have been cases in which timber buildings have caught fire leading to severe fire spread and ruined buildings. One example concerns a student modulus accommodation in Luleå that caught fire in august 2013. The fire started on the fourth floor after which a vertical fire spread occurred in concealed spaces between the volume modules. According to the fire investigation lack of knowledge regarding performance of detailed building solutions has led to the poor fire performance of the building. This master thesis mainly consists of a model scale tests that is prepared and performed according to the standard EN 1363-1. The purpose of the test is to investigate the performance of various cavity barriers exposed to fire. The main objective is to examine which temperatures that can be expected at different positions at various cavity barriers when using model scale test as a test method. There are two main kinds of cavity barriers: barriers that are airtight and closed inside the voids of the construction; and ventilated barriers. The most common cavity barriers are the ones that are airtight and closed. The material can be solid wood, gypsum board or mineral wool. The installation areas for these cavity barriers are anywhere, besides where the concealed spaces shall be ventilated and in every joint that shall be sealed using sealant. The ventilated cavity barriers are mounted in concealed spaces where the ventilating function is provided. These concealed spaces are often situated in, for example, ventilated attics, facades and roofs. The purpose of the ventilated barriers is to maintain the air flow in the cavity during regular conditions but also to form a protecting barrier between fire compartments when exposed to fire. The model scale test includes test apparatuses such as thermocouples and a fire resistance furnace with plate thermometers and burners. In addition, a test rig consisting of test specimens and the products to be tested are essential.  In this report, two model scale tests have been performed and prepared according to EN 1363‑1. The test period endured for four hours and the thermocouples measured the temperatures during the whole time. During the first hour the test specimens were exposed to the standard ISO 834 fire curve by controlling the burners in the furnace. After one hour the burners were turned off and the specimens were no longer exposed to fire. The measurements of the temperatures continued during three more hours. After the first two of these three hours the furnace was opened to confer more oxygen in the purpose to record any changes in the temperatures. Results of the performed experiments have indicated parameters that affect the performance of the cavity barriers. The cavity surface itself has an influence to the fire spread. The number of barriers in the cavity and the material properties of the material that is used as the cavity barrier lead to the different protection by those cavity barriers. Some of the tested barriers were plastic covered, which had effect on the performance of the cavity barriers. The dimensions of the barriers, moreover the width and the thickness, are important parameters for the proper function of the barrier. The test results indicate that glowing combustion occurs in the cavity between various cavity barriers.  It can be seen that the temperature rises when the furnace is opened. This indicates the appearance of smouldering since the combustion increases when the amount of oxygen increases, which leads to a temperature rise. Furthermore, the appearance of smouldering (glowing combustion) can be indicated by the observation of the damages of the specimens after the test. The temperatures that may be expected at the unexposed side of the cavity barrier depend on the surface material of the cavity, dimensions, and the material of the cavity barriers. Smouldering is a consequence of the temperature rise in closed cavities between cavity barriers. The performed test endured for approximately four hours and this indicates that fires in cavities can stay for a long time. To ensure the performance of various cavity barriers and verification by a model scale test it is important to perform further experiment and analyses to investigate the effects of the various parameters. To ensure the effectiveness of the performance of the cavity barriers they should be tested in cavities with various widths and various heights. Further investigation of the risk for smouldering is needed with measuring the amount of oxygen and the pressure.

The principal aim of this thesis is to provide a comprehensive account of the meaning of keep V-ing constructions, see (1a) and (1b). (1) a. Mary kept winning (again and again). (1) b. John kept running (for another ten minutes). On the basis of a systematic study of combinations of keep with predicates of different aktionsarts, it is shown that keep can give rise to two different readings which share the overall meaning of ‘continued activity’. It is argued that the two readings of keep V-ing arise from different aspectual properties of the predicate in the complement clause. Under the first reading, labelled the continuative-iterative reading, (1a), the event in the complement clause is telic, and the interpretation is an iterative reading. Under the second reading, labelled the continuative reading, (1b), the event in the complement clause is atelic, and the interpretation is a reading of nonstop continuation. It is argued that keep combines with activity predicates in the relevant construction type, that is, with dynamic, durative and atelic events, and that keep has the ability to induce aspect shift when combining with predicates that are not inherent activities. Thus, in (1a), a punctual and telic winning event is iterated, creating a series which in itself is durative and atelic. In (1b), the running event is already durative and atelic. By comparing keep V-ing with the progressive construction be V-ing, (2), and with two other continuative constructions, continue V-ing, (3), and V on, (4), it is shown that keep readily shifts a telic predicate into an atelic reading by taking scope over the entire event, (1a), but cannot take scope over an internal part of a telic event. Both be V-ing, (2), and continue V-ing, (3), are able to take scope over an internal part of a telic event. (2) John was building the house. (3) John continued building the house. (4) John ran on. In addition, unlike continue V-ing and V on, keep V-ing does not necessarily denote continuation of an event which has already been initiated.

It has long been observed that, in a double object constructions (DOC), the two objects exhibit different syntactic behaviour. In Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG), these two objects are characterized as two distinct grammatical functions. The object that syntactically patterns with the monotransitive object is the unrestricted object OBJ. The one that does not is the restricted object OBJθ. The goals of this dissertation are to investigate the syntax of DOCs, and to explore the two object functions in LFG. When thinking about DOCs, the verb that almost invariably comes to mind is GIVE. This verb, however, may not be as prototypical as is commonly assumed. In Cantonese, it is the only verb whose objects are in an anomalous order, with the object that bears the theme role preceding the object which expresses the recipient role. Cantonese as a language does not uniformly have the direct (theme) object preceding the indirect (recipient) object. Other than the difference in their linear order, the objects in the GIVE-construction pattern with those in all other DOCs in the language. In some languages, there is a possibility of having more objects than is required by the underived form of a verb. An additional object can be licensed by the affixation of an applicative morpheme to the verb root. The syntax of the objects in an applicative construction is directly related to the type of semantic role that is applied. This has posed challenges for previous accounts of applicative constructions, as a change in the morphological structure of a verb is accompanied by a change in its argument structure. A new proposal is offered to account for this. A study of the syntax of DOCs involves much more than merely acknowledging the presence of two object functions in the construction. The morphology of the verb, the semantic roles that are required by the verb and the linear order of the arguments that express these roles are all relevant. Assuming various parallel but inter-related levels of representation, the theory of LFG has the suitable tools to take all these into consideration. Reference can be made straight-forwardly to the information at the different levels of representation, including the a-structure, the c-structure, the f-structure and the m-structure.

Much of the current discourse surrounding the practice of early reading has emerged from policies that dictate the definition and means by which reading is taught and by which reading success is measured. Although this discourse directly influences the work of preschool teachers, little is known about what preschool teachers think about early reading and how they develop these understandings or constructions. Research concerning preschool teachers’ constructions is useful because of the potential influence on teachers' decisions and classroom behaviors. The purpose of this study is to better understand preschool teachers’ constructions concerning early reading and the process of learning to read. Six preschool teachers, with a variety of personal, educational, and professional experiences, from four diverse early childhood programs in the North Texas area were interviewed over a nine-month period during which each participant was interviewed for approximately three hours. Through systematic, inductive analysis, three themes were identified under an overarching theme of the interdependent and relational nature of early reading influences: out-of-school interactions, in-school interactions, and interactions with text. Without exception, these teachers referred to their life experiences as influencing their approach to teaching in general and to teaching reading in particular. The goals these preschool teachers had for their students and their instructional decisions were indications of their unique and evolving constructions of early reading and are absolutely grounded in their practice – in their life experiences and in their daily interactions with children. This study suggests that stakeholders should remember that these practical experiences are a primary influence on how preschool teachers think about early reading and the process of learning to read.

The aim of this thesis was to evaluate the environmental impacts of NATM tunnelling method using the assembly of LCA studies. Construction sector still has large potential for advancement, and therefore is a subject of interest for also for LCA studies. Underground constructions applies more with growing demands for space in infrastructure. If sustainable growth in construction is desired, it's important to have an idea about the environmental impacts of this sector. Sustainable growth requires methods and tools for measurement and comparison of impacts of human activities on the environment. These tools are provided by LCA studies, which also allow a proactive approach. The advantage of LCA is a preview of the entire life cycle of the product, so there is no shifting of problems between the individual stages of the product's life cycle. LCA study of cradle-to-gate type was selected to evaluate New Austrian tunnelling method. LCA study was done for one tunnel, length 850m with cross-section surface of 13,46m2 excavated by the NATM method, realized over the course of 18 months. GaBi 6 software tool was used for making of this study. Results show that the most important emission sources of NATM tunnelling method are production of cement, dumping of excavated material, production of reinforcing steel...

Diplomová práce se zabývá využitím programu GeoGebra ve výuce ma- tematiky, konkrétně v tématu konstrukce trojúhelník·. Cílem práce bylo na- vrhnout přípravu na hodiny výuky konstrukce trojúhelník· s využitím pro- gramu GeoGebra a následně ověřit, zda využití softwaru dynamické geometrie mělo vliv na zvládnutí nového učiva. Teoretická část obsahuje použité pojmy z planimetrie. V dalších dvou kapitolách se čtenář seznámí s programem GeoGebra a GeoTest a některými výzkumy, které jsou zaměřené na použití program· dynamické geometrie ve výuce matematiky. Následuje kapitola se- znamující s úlohami, které jsou v experimentu využity, a popisuje přípravu jednotlivých hodin. Poslední část je věnovaná pr·běhu experimentu, srovnání výsledk· žák· pomocí test· s kontrolní třídou. Získaná data jsou zpracována na základě pozorování a test·. Výsledky pozorování a analýzy potvrzují, že GeoGebra je vhodným doplňkem výuky konstrukce trojúhelník·. 1

L’objectif général de la présente thèse est d’évaluer dans quelle mesure la grammaire des verbes, aussi appelée complémentation verbale, peut être basée sur l’usage de la langue. La linguistique de l’usage (usage-based approach) constitue un récent changement de paradigme dans les sciences du langage, qui défend l’idée que la grammaire est un inventaire dynamique d’unités symboliques qui émergent et sont constamment redéfinies par l’usage de la langue. En adoptant une approche constructionnelle de la complémentation verbale et sur la base de données de l’anglais, nous traitons la question de la relation entre la grammaire des verbes et leur usage à trois niveaux d’organisation.Au niveau des verbes, nous comparons des résultats expérimentaux à des données de corpus, et trouvons que les plus fréquentes valences d’un verbe sont traitées plus facilement, ce qui montre que la valence est basée sur l’usage. Au niveau des constructions, nous montrons que, dans le cas de la construction conative, il est possible de formuler le sens d’une construction sur la base du sens des verbes en se plaçant au niveau de classes sémantiques, mais moins facilement au niveau le plus abstrait. Nous considérons ceci comme une preuve supplémentaire de l’importance des schémas de bas niveau sur les généralisations abstraites. Au niveau des alternances, nous suggérons que la productivité verbale peut être basée sur des relations d’alternances. Nous montrons que l’alternance dative présente une asymétrie en productivité, et que cette asymétrie peut être expliquée par des différences correspondantes en termes du nombre de verbes utilisés dans chaque construction. / The general goal of this thesis is to investigate to what extent the grammar of verbs, also called argument realization, can be based on linguistic usage. The usage-based approach is a recent paradigm shift in linguistics which takes the view that grammar is a dynamic inventory of symbolic conventions that emerges through, and is likewise shaped by, actual language use. Adopting a constructional approach to argument structure and on the basis of English data, we address the question of the usage basis of argument realization at three levels of organization.At the level of verbs, we compare experimental results to usage data, and find that more frequent valency patterns of a verb are processed more easily. These findings provide evidence for the usage basis of valency. At the level of constructions, we show that, in the case of the conative construction, it is possible to formulate constructional generalizations on the basis of verbal meaning at the level of semantically defined verb classes, but not so easily at the most abstract level. We take this as further evidence of the importance of lower-level schemas over broad generalizations. At the level of alternations, we present usage-based evidence that productivity can be based on alternation relations. We report that the dative alternation displays a productivity asymmetry, and we show that these differences can be explained by corresponding asymmetries in type frequencies.

Title: Syntactic characteristics (features) of stretched verb constructions in the language of german journalism Summary: This thesis interprets the meaning and the use of stretched verb constructions. The german newspapers "Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung", "Mannheimer Morgen" and "Bild" were chosen as the research objects. The thesis is devided in three chapters. The first chapter explains the theory in general and describes the newspapers and the research method in detail. The practical part analyses the use of these verbs in newspapers and shows that their use depends not only on the newspaper but on the region. The last chapter offers some grammar exercises for the practical use of this construction. Keywords: stretched verb constructions, syntax, newspaper analyse, exercises

Le raisonnement contrefactuel est un procès cognitif universel par lequel la réalité est comparée avec ce qui aurait pu se passer autrement (Kahneman & Tversky 1982). L'expression de la contrefactualité repose traditionnellement sur l'analyse des constructions conditionnelles si A (alors) B (Grevisse 1986, Chevalier et al. 1964, Riegel et al. 1994). Le but de notre étude est de décrire l’ensemble des constructions et des moyens grammaticaux par lesquels des locuteurs natifs expriment la contrefactualité en français, en espagnol, en italien et en français langue étrangère (FLE).Notre étude est fondée sur des données conversationnelles auprès de deux groupes d'apprenants FLE – trente hispanophones et trente italophones – et de trois groupes de contrôle : français, espagnol et italien. Pour l'enquête, nous avons utilisé comme stimulus un récit présentant une chaîne causale menant à un aboutissement malheureux (Wells & Gavanski 1989). Suite à la lecture du stimulus, nous avons demandé aux participants de proposer plusieurs alternatives afin d’éviter le dénouement malheureux (tâche mutationnelle).Nos résultats mettent en évidence que les noyaux mutationnels produits par le groupe de contrôle français combinent, le plus fréquemment, un marqueur du passé et un verbe modal (i.e., elle aurait pu choisir toute seule son plat). Les implications sémantiques de ce type de construction rendent difficile son acquisition en FLE, puisque l'apprenant doit produire un scenario alternatif lequel signifie sa propre subjectivité. L'emploi natif de ce conditionnel modalisé n'émerge que dans les variétés d'apprenant les plus avancées en termes d'immersion dans le milieu de la langue cible et d'études FLE. Nos résultats montrent que les constructions en si- ne constituent pas le moyen le plus fréquent pour parler de ce qui aurait pu se passer autrement ni en français, ni en espagnol, ni en italien. La non-prééminence des constructions conditionnelles dans l’expression de la contrefactualité devrait amener à une réflexion sur les limites de la conditionnalité en tant que procès de conceptualisation de l’irréel. / Counterfactual thinking is a universal cognitive process in which reality is compared to an imagined view of what might have been (Kahneman & Tversky 1982). The expression of counterfactuality has been traditionally analyzed from conditional sentences if P (then) Q (Grevisse 1986, Chevalier et al. 1991, Riegel et al. 1994). The present study aims to describe the whole constructions and grammatical devices used when speaking about counterfactual worlds by native-French, Spanish and Italian speakers and by Spanish-speakers learners and Italian learners of French.The study analyzes how 30 Spanish-instructed learners and 30 Italian-instructed learners express counterfactuality in spoken French as an L2 and by what grammatical devices counterfactuality is encoded by one native-French control group, one native Spanish-speakers control group and one native-Italian control group. Guided interviews were conducted in both L2 and L1, in random order. Participants were presented with a story that led to a particular outcome and were asked to provide alternative scenarios that prevented such an outcome to happen (mutation task). The same method was used with the control groups.The more frequent construction in the mutation cores in French is a combination of a past marker and a modal verb (i.e., elle aurait pu choisir toute seule son plat; she could have chosen her own dish). The semantic implications of this type of construction make difficult its acquisition in French L2, since the learner must construct alternative scenarios which denote, in addition, his own subjectivity. The native use of this modalized conditional merges in the most experimented Learners Varieties in terms of immersion and time of studies in French L2.Conditional constructions are not the most frequent way of encoding counterfactuality, neither for the native-French speakers nor for the Spanish and Italian speakers. The non-predominance of the if- clauses to speak about what might have been should hence a delimitation of conditionality as a conceptualization process within irreality. / El razonamiento contrafactual es un proceso cognitivo en el que la realidad es comparada con lo que podría haber pasado (Kahneman & Tversky 1982). La expresión de la contrafactualidad se basa tradicionalmente en un análisis de las proposiciones condicionales si A (entonces) B (Grevisse 1986, Chevalier et al. 1991, Riegel et al. 1994). El objetivo del presente estudio es describir la totalidad de construcciones y elementos gramaticales mediante los que los locutores nativos expresan la contrafactualidad en francés, español e italiano y en francés lengua extranjera (FLE).El presente estudio se basa en datos conversacionales obtenidos de dos grupos de aprendices FLE -30 hablantes de español y 30 hablantes de italiano- y de tres grupos de control: francés, español e italiano. Como estímulo hemos utilizado un texto que presenta una cadena causal que desemboca en un final desafortunado (Wells & Gavanski 1989). Tras la lectura del estímulo, hemos pedido a los participantes que propongan varias alternativas para evitar el desenlace desafortunado (tarea mutacional).Nuestros resultados ponen de manifiesto la tendencia del francés de marcar los núcleos mutacionales mediante la combinación de una marca de pasado y de un verbo modal (i.e., elle aurait pu choisir toute seule son plat; habría podido elegir su plato ella misma). Las implicaciones semánticas de este tipo de construcción dificultan su adquisición en FLE, ya que el aprendiz debe producir un escenario alternativo que signifique su propia subjetividad. El uso de este condicional modalizado emerge en las variedades de aprendiz más experimentadas en términos de inmersión y de estudios FLE.Nuestros resultados prueban que las proposiciones condicionales no son la construcción más frecuente para hablar de lo que podría haber pasado ni en francés, ni en italiano ni en español. La no preeminencia de las condicionales introducidas por si- en la construcción de escenarios alternativos debería acarrear una reflexión sobre los límites de la condicionalidad en tanto que proceso de conceptualización de la irrealidad.