O presente trabalho constitui um primeiro esforço por modelar disparos de neurônios usando cadeias estocásticas de memória de alcance variável. Esses modelos foram introduzidos por Rissanen (1983). A ideia principal deste tipo de modelos consiste em que a definição probabilística de cada símbolo depende somente de uma porção finita do passado e o comprimento dela é função do passado mesmo, tal porção foi chamada de \"contexto\" e o conjunto de contextos pode ser representado através de uma árvore. No passado vários métodos de estimação foram propostos, nos quais é necessário especificar algumas constantes, de forma que Galves et al.(2012) apresentaram o \"critério do menor maximizador\" (SMC), sendo este um algoritmo consistente que independe de qualquer constante. De outro lado na área da neurociência vem tomando força a ideia de que o processamento de informação do cérebro é feito de forma probabilística, por esta razão foram usados os dados coletados por Sidarta Ribeiro e sua equipe, correspondentes à atividade neuronal em ratos, para estimar as árvores de contextos que caracterizam os disparos de quatro neurônios do hipocampo e identificar possíveis associações entre eles, também foram feitas comparações de acordo com o estado comportamental do rato (Vigília / Sono), em todos os casos foi usado o algoritmo SMC para a estimação das árvores de contexto. Por último, é aberta uma discussão sobre o tamanho de amostra necessário para a implementação deste tipo de análise. / This work describes an initial effort to model spike trains of neurons using Variable Length Markov Chains (VLMC). These models were introduced by Rissanen(1983). The principal idea of this kind of models is thaht the probabilistic definition of each symbol only depends on a finite part of the past and the length of this relevant portion is a function of the past itself. This portion were called \"context\" and the set of contexts can be represented as a rooted labeled tree. In the past, several methods of estimation were proposed, where is necessary to fix any constants, for this reason Galves et al.(2012) introduced the \"smallest maximizer criterion\" (SMC), which is a consistent and constant free model selection procedure. By the other side, in the neuroscience area has gained strength the idea that the information processing in the brain is done in a probabilistic way, for this reason were used the data collected by Sidarta Ribeiro and his team, related to the neuronal activity in rats, to estimate the context trees that describing the spike trains of four neurons of hipocampus region and to identify associations between them, comparisions were also made according to the behavioural state of the rat (Wake / Sleep), in all cases the algorithm were used the SMC algortithm to estimate the context trees. Finally, is opened a discussion on the sample size required for the implementation of this kind of analysis.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-26T20:21:11Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Lucas Galvao de Britto.pdf: 1356483 bytes, checksum: da73d05015996a2d841a7d4e9a63f490 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-10-05 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / This study's purpose is the spatial criterion of the matrix-norm of tax incidence. Investigates it from an hermeneutic-analytical point of view, departing from the understanding of how spatial categories help humans in understanding the objects of experience, in order to isolate and transpose these categories to the study of law, testing them with the established theory of place of crime and conducting the analysis results for the formulation of a theory of the place of tribute / Esta pesquisa tem por objeto o critério espacial da regra-matriz de incidência tributária. Investiga-o desde um ponto de vista analítico- hemenêutico para, a partir da compreensão de como as categorias espaciais ajudam o ser humano na compreensão dos objetos da experiência,transpor as categorias isolada são direito,testando-as com a já estabelecida teoria do lugar do crime e, conduzindo os resultados da análise para a formação de uma teoria do lugar do tributo

L’étude d’un critère de distinction des nullités est-elle désuète ? Tant s’en faut. S’inscrivant dans lecontentieux de la théorie des nullités, le critère de distinction actuel est couramment dénoncé.À ce jour, il est enseigné qu’une théorie « moderne » aurait renversé une théorie « classique »distinguant les nullités relatives et absolues selon la gravité du vice de l’acte. Aussi le critère actuel de« l’intérêt protégé » propose-t-il de scinder les nullités selon l’intérêt que la loi décide de préserver.Ici, la nullité est relative lorsque seul un intérêt particulier est protégé par le législateur. Là, unenullité absolue est préférable quand l’intérêt général a guidé l’objectif législatif dans l’édiction de larègle.Séduisant, ce critère n’en demeure pas pour autant convaincant. L’excès condamnable de rigidité ducritère organique laisse place à un excès de souplesse du critère de l’intérêt protégé tout aussiblâmable. Comment distinguer l’intérêt général de l’intérêt privé ? Bien plus, y a-t-il un intérêt àprotéger quand le législateur exige une condition matérielle de formation de l’acte comme la cause oul’objet ? Par où l’on voit qu’à l’insécurité juridique du critère s’adjoint l’artifice des classifications qu’ilengendre. Insatisfaisant, le critère de l’intérêt protégé doit être réprouvé.L’approche historique, essentielle pour comprendre l’origine de la distinction, dévoile la chronologieerronée des théories esquissées. S’ensuit l’abandon d’un critère palliatif pour la substitution d’uncritère plus effectif, dont le fondement n’instaure pas une hiérarchie entre les conditions de formationou les intérêts protégés. Mises sur un pied d’égalité, les nullités seraient distinctes en raison des vicesqui les provoquent, pris dans leur nature, et non dans leur gravité. Fondé sur la nature du vice,personnelle – si le vice affecte le consentement –, matérielle ou illicite – si le vice altère le contrat –,ce nouveau critère de distinction des nullités autoriserait une classification ternaire, avec un régimespécifique à chaque vice. Il permettrait également la redécouverte d’une pluralité de natures desnullités, en tant que sanction ou remède. L’harmonie des catégories s’en trouverait ainsi instaurée, labipolarité décriée abandonnée et la nature véritable des nullités restaurée. / Is the search for a distinction criterion of nullities obsolete ? Far from it. Lying within the litigation ofdoctrine of nullities, the current distinction criterion is frequently denounced.To date, it is taught that a "modern" theory would have reversed a "classical" theory, distinguishingrelative nullities (voidable) from absolute ones (void) according to the gravity of the act’s defect.Therefore, the "protected interest" criterion proposes dividing up nullities according to the interestthe law decides to protect. Here, nullity is relative when a specific interest alone is protected by thelawmaker. There, an absolute nullity is preferred, when general interest guided the legislative purposewhile enacting the rule.Appealing, this criterion does not remain, however, convincing. The blameworthy excess of rigidity ofthe organic criterion makes room for an as much blameful excess of flexibility of the protected interestcriterion. How to distinguish general interest from specific interest ? Furthermore, is there an interestto be protected when the lawmaker demands a material condition for the formation of the act such asthe cause or the object? In any case, to the juridical insecurity of the criterion is affixed the device ofbred classifications. Unsatisfactory, the protected interest criterion must be reprobated.Historical approach, essential for understanding the origin of the distinction, expose the erroneouschronology of the sketched theories. Follows the abandonment of a palliative criterion for a moreeffective one, whose foundation does not establish a hierarchy between the conditions of formation orthe protected interests. Treated on an equal footing, nullities would be distinct because of the defectsthat father them, taken in nature, not in their severity. Based on the nature of the defect, personal – ifthe defect affects the consent –, concrete or illicit – if the defect impairs the contract –, this newdistinction criteria of nullities would allow a ternary classification, with a specific plan for each vice. Itwould also allow the rediscovery of a plurality natures of nullity, as a sanction or remedy. Harmony ofcategories would find itself instituted, disparaged polarity abandoned and true nature of nullitiesrestored.

<p>A Test Battery (TB) is a measurement method that is designed to assess a variety of ability constructs. The extent to which TB predicts future pilot performance has important implications for both flying organizations and applicants. The primary emphasis in the existing literature has been on scores of individual ability tests, in contrast to the scores of multiple ability tests that are typically indexed by composites derived from TBs. The selection literature lacks a focus on composite scores, and seldom links to the broad cognitive abilities that predominate TBs. The objective of this study was to investigate how the different broad ability constructs of TBs influence their predictive validities for pilot performance. Six ability groups were identified as the most common ability saturations of pilot selection TBs. On the basis of 89 studies and 118 independent samples, a series of meta-analyses were conducted to determine the criterion-related validity of the six categories of TBs for several criterions of pilot performance.</p> <p>The investigation revealed there was an overall small and positive relationship between TBs and flight performance. The six categories of cognitive ability TBs appeared to be valid predictors of pilot performance, and at least five of them generalize validity across studies and settings. More specifically, three sets of predictor groups were identified according to the magnitude of validity estimates. The highest validity group included <i>Work Sample</i> TBs (<i>r</i>=.34), the second highest validity group included TBs of <i>Acquired Knowledge</i>, <i>General Ability</i>, and <i>Motor Abilities</i> (<i>r</i>=.19, .18, and .17, respectively), and the lowest validity group included TBs of <i>Perceptual Processing</i> and <i>Controlled Attention</i> (<i>r</i>=.14 and .10, respectively).</p> <p>The results also indicated that there was substantial variability in the effect of cognitive abilities on flight performance, with evidence of moderators operating in most cases. Five potential moderator variables were examined that may moderate the TBs-performance relationship in flying. The analysis for the moderator variable of <i>the number of tests in the battery </i>(small battery/large battery), <i>regularity of TB use in pilot selection</i> (commonly used/uncommonly used), and <i>criterion level of measurement</i> (continuous/ordinal/dichotomous/ contingency table) revealed significant moderating effects on the correlations between flight performance and several types of test batteries. Other moderators related to <i>year of publication</i> (1987-1999/2000-2009/2010-2017) and <i>flying organization</i> (USAF/US Navy/Another military/Civilian) did not significantly influence the correlations between TBs and flight performance. The implications of the findings for practice are discussed, and recommendations for future research directions are provided.</p>

Cette thèse est consacrée à l’étude du modèle d’accrochage en environnementfaiblement corrélé. Le modèle d’accrochage s’applique à de multiples situationstelles que la localisation d’un polymère au voisinage d’une interface unidimensionnelle,la transition de mouillage ou encore la dénaturation de l’ADN, le pointcommun étant la présence d’une transition entre une phase localisée et une phasedélocalisée.Nous commençons par donner un aperçu des résultats disponibles sur lescourbes et exposants critiques pour le modèle homogène puis pour le modèledésordonné lorsque le désordre est une suite de variables aléatoires indépendanteset identiquement distribuées (i.i.d.). Dans ce dernier cas, nous donnons égalementune borne sur la courbe critique quenched à haute température, dans un régimeoù le désordre est dit pertinent.Nous étudions ensuite le modèle d’accrochage désordonné dans le cas où ledésordre est gaussien et les corrélations ont une portée finie, à l’aide de la théoriedes processus de renouvellement markoviens. Nous donnons dans ce cas une expressionde la courbe annealed à l’aide de la plus grande valeur propre d’une matricede transfert ainsi que l’exposant critique annealed. Nous généralisons ensuite lescritères de pertinence et de non pertinence du désordre prouvés dans le cas i.i.d.Nous nous intéressons ensuite à des désordres dont les corrélations ont uneportée de corrélation infinie. Dans un premier temps, nous généralisons la démarcheutilisée dans le cas d’une portée de corrélations finie et obtenons le comportementcritique annealed dans le cas d’un désordre gaussien sous des hypothèses dedécroissance forte des corrélations. Nous utilisons pour cela les propriétés spectralesdes opérateurs de transfert pour des décalages sur des suites d’entiers etdes potentiels à variations sommables. Dans un deuxième temps, nous donnonsquelques résultats dans le cas où le désordre est donné par une chaîne de Markov. / In this dissertation we study the pinning model with weakly correlated disorder.The pinning model applies to various situations such as localization of a polymernear a one-dimensional interface, wetting transition and DNA denaturation, whichall display a transition between a localized phase and a delocalized phase.We start by giving a survey of the available results concerning critical pointsand exponents, first for the homogeneous setup and then for the inhomogeneousone, in the case when disorder is given by a sequence of independent and identicallydistributed (i.i.d.) random variables. In the latter case, we also provide a hightemperaturebound on the quenched critical curve in a case of relevant disorder.We then study the random pinning model when disorder is gaussian and hascorrelations with finite range, using the theory of Markov renewal processes. Weexpress the annealed critical curve in terms of the largest eigenvalue of a transfermatrix and we give the annealed critical exponent. We then generalize the criteriafor disorder relevance/irrelevance that were proved for the i.i.d. case.Next we are interested in disorder sequences with infinite range correlations.At first we generalize the method used to deal with finite range correlations andobtain the annealed critical behaviour in the case of gaussian disorder assumingfast decay of correlations. We use to this end the spectral properties of transferoperators for shifts on integer sequences and potentials with summable variations.Secondly we provide some results when disorder is a Markov chain.

New keynesian Phillips curve (NKPC) has become a central model to study the relation between inflation and real economic activity, notably in the framework of optimal monetary policy design. However, some recent evidence suggests that empirical data are usually at odds with the underlying theory. The model due to its inherent structure represents a statistical challenge in its own right. Since Galí and Gertler (1999) published their seminal paper introducing estimation via GMM techniques, they have triggered a heated debate on its empirical relevance. Their approach has been heavily criticised by later authors, mainly on the grounds of questionable behaviour of GMM estimator in the NKPC context and/or its small sample properties. The common criticism includes sensitivity to the choice of instrument set, weak identification and small sample bias. In this thesis I propose a new estimation strategy that provides a remedy to above mentioned shortcomings and allows to obtain reliable estimates. The procedure exploits recent advances in GMM theory as well as in other fields of statistics, in particular in the area of time series factor analysis and bootstrap. The proposed estimation strategy consists of several consecutive steps: first, to reduce a small sample bias resulting from excessive use of instruments I summarize all available information by employing factor analysis and include estimated factors into information set. In the second step I use statistical information criteria to select optimal instruments and eventually I obtain confidence intervals on parameters using bootstrap method. In NKPC context all these methods were used for the first time and can also be used independently. Their combination however provides synergistic effect that helps to improve the properties of estimates and to check the efficiency of given steps. Obtained results suggest that NKPC model can explain Czech inflation dynamics fairly well and provide some support for underlying theory. Among other things the results imply that the policy of disinflation may not be as costly with respect to a loss in aggregate product as earlier versions of Phillips curve would indicate. However, finding a good proxy for real economic activity has proved to be a difficult task. In particular we demonstrated that results are conditional on how the measure is calculated, some measures even showed countercyclical behaviour. This issue -- in the thesis discussed only in passing -- is a subject of future research. In addition to the proposed strategy and provided parameter estimates the thesis brings some partial simulation-based findings. Simulations elaborate on earlier literature on naive bootstrap in GMM context and study performance of bootstrap modifications of unit root and KPSS test.

O presente trabalho constitui um primeiro esforço por modelar disparos de neurônios usando cadeias estocásticas de memória de alcance variável. Esses modelos foram introduzidos por Rissanen (1983). A ideia principal deste tipo de modelos consiste em que a definição probabilística de cada símbolo depende somente de uma porção finita do passado e o comprimento dela é função do passado mesmo, tal porção foi chamada de \"contexto\" e o conjunto de contextos pode ser representado através de uma árvore. No passado vários métodos de estimação foram propostos, nos quais é necessário especificar algumas constantes, de forma que Galves et al.(2012) apresentaram o \"critério do menor maximizador\" (SMC), sendo este um algoritmo consistente que independe de qualquer constante. De outro lado na área da neurociência vem tomando força a ideia de que o processamento de informação do cérebro é feito de forma probabilística, por esta razão foram usados os dados coletados por Sidarta Ribeiro e sua equipe, correspondentes à atividade neuronal em ratos, para estimar as árvores de contextos que caracterizam os disparos de quatro neurônios do hipocampo e identificar possíveis associações entre eles, também foram feitas comparações de acordo com o estado comportamental do rato (Vigília / Sono), em todos os casos foi usado o algoritmo SMC para a estimação das árvores de contexto. Por último, é aberta uma discussão sobre o tamanho de amostra necessário para a implementação deste tipo de análise. / This work describes an initial effort to model spike trains of neurons using Variable Length Markov Chains (VLMC). These models were introduced by Rissanen(1983). The principal idea of this kind of models is thaht the probabilistic definition of each symbol only depends on a finite part of the past and the length of this relevant portion is a function of the past itself. This portion were called \"context\" and the set of contexts can be represented as a rooted labeled tree. In the past, several methods of estimation were proposed, where is necessary to fix any constants, for this reason Galves et al.(2012) introduced the \"smallest maximizer criterion\" (SMC), which is a consistent and constant free model selection procedure. By the other side, in the neuroscience area has gained strength the idea that the information processing in the brain is done in a probabilistic way, for this reason were used the data collected by Sidarta Ribeiro and his team, related to the neuronal activity in rats, to estimate the context trees that describing the spike trains of four neurons of hipocampus region and to identify associations between them, comparisions were also made according to the behavioural state of the rat (Wake / Sleep), in all cases the algorithm were used the SMC algortithm to estimate the context trees. Finally, is opened a discussion on the sample size required for the implementation of this kind of analysis.

Motivados pelas atuais tendências e suportados pelo grande interesse de indústrias do segmento aeronáutico, estudos e desenvolvimentos vêm sendo conduzidos na área de análise estrutural de materiais compósitos. Todavia, mesmo havendo várias contribuições científicas e tecnológicas nesta área, este assunto continua sendo um campo aberto e bastante promissor para novas pesquisas, devido a sua extensa complexidade e imediata aplicação. A ausência de um modelo capaz de projetar com elevada precisão uma estrutura aeronáutica com presença de escalonamento fabricada em material compósito, que pode sofrer modo de falha translaminar, motivou o presente trabalho. É sabido que o método de elementos finitos estendidos (XFEM - eXtendend Finite Element Method, do Inglês) vem sendo usado de maneira robusta para análise de propagação de trincas em elementos estruturais tridimensionais isotrópicos durante os últimos anos, mas não em compósitos. De forma a contribuir com a pequena quantidade de trabalhos científicos referentes a métodos XFEM 3D para análise de estruturas fabricadas em materiais compósitos não convencionais, como estruturas com escalonamento de camadas e laminados espessos, é apresentada uma nova metodologia implementada como uma ferramenta computacional para analisar quase estaticamente este tipo de estrutura. O modelo é baseado no aprimoramento do \"Método da Seção de Ouro\" que é aplicado em conjunto com uma versão aprimorada do critério de falha de Puck, permitindo assim definir com precisão e baixo custo computacional a iniciação e direção de uma trinca. Esta informação é utilizada para iniciar uma rotina baseada em XFEM, que é usada para o enriquecimento dos elementos finitos que vão falhando progressivamente durante a análise. A nova metodologia (implementada computacionalmente) apresenta convergência uma ordem de grandeza maior quando comparada com o algoritmo tradicional, sendo aproximadamente 20 vezes mais eficiente em termos computacionais. O modelo é ainda avaliado quanto a seus resultados em comparação com dados provenientes de ensaios experimentais, demonstrando uma boa convergência entre as previsões computacionais e os resultados obtidos em laboratório. / Supported by current trends and by the great interest of aeronautic industries, studies and developments have been made in the field of high performance composite materials. Nonetheless, even with the scientific and technological contributions, the matter is still a field wide open and promising for new research due to its high complexity and immediate application. The absence of a model capable of universally reproducing mechanical behavior of composite materials tapered structures, which can suffer translaminar failure mode, motivated the present work. It is well known that the eXtended Finite Elements Method (XFEM) has been used robustly for analysis of crack propagation in isotropic tri-dimensional structural elements lately but not for composites. In order to contribute with the scares amount of available works on 3D XFEM application on non-conventional composite material structures, such as tapered structures and thick laminates, a new methodology is presented as a computational tool for quasi-static analysis of this type of component. The model derives from \"Golden Section Method\" that is applied along with an enhanced version of Puck\'s failure criterion, which allows a low computational cost and high precision estimation of crack initiation and direction of propagation. This information is used to trigger an XFEM based routine that is applied for enriching the elements progressively during analysis. The new methodology (computationally implemented) has a convergence rate one order of magnitude greater than traditional implementation, roughly 20 times more efficient in terms of computational processing. Finally, to assure robustness, the model is validated against standardized and specifically developed experiments, showing good convergence between numerical predictions and results obtained in the laboratory.

以探討銀行放款策略訂定的角度而言，在過去的文獻中， 要仍是在說明 於訊息不對稱下，產生逆選擇及道德危機，因 有信用分配的現象；而本 文所強調的重點則和Milde & Ril-y(1988)的精神相同，利用信號機能來 求出各種貸款申請人之抩A均衡契約，進而區分出各個貸款申請人債信品 質的高低。誘撠眾]在貸款額固定下，擔保品為投資計畫利潤函數中的正 袺鷌僂?A成功地導出擔保品可用來作為信號的指標，在銀行飢馴□v爭下 ，債信較高(違約風險小)的貸款申請人會願意接□U款利率低但須提供較 多擔保品的契約，而債信較低 (違約滅I大) 的貸款申請人則反之。對於 均衡時分離契約(separating contracts)的穩定性，畯怬Q用Cho & Kreps (1987)之sequential equilibrium觀念討出可能優於(dominate) 最適分離契約之pooling契約，是存在的；其原因來自於銀行間的層層牽 制，而不敢提出此契，使得上述的分離契約才是唯一均衡時的契約。由於 我國對於設立銀行所需資本額頗為龐大，因此仍僅限騚X個大財團與大企 業間共同籌資才得以完成，故在銀行的產~中若僅以完全競爭的情況來探 討，似乎仍不夠完善，在本文澈嵽b段，我們即以銀行是獨佔的角度來探 討均衡契約的訂定A並與完全競爭時的情況相比較。這亦使得銀行在不同 結構間A對放款契約的探討有了更完整的架構。

Denna avhandling, som i huvudsak är resultatet av ett projekt finansierat av Skolöverstyrelsen, består av fem delstudier (I-V) utförda under åren 1977-1991 samt en sammanfattande analysdel (VI). Avhandlingens syfte är att studera det unika svenska relativa betygssystemet, som infördes på försök i folkskolan i början av 1940-talet för att senare permanentas och även införas i enhets- och grundskolan samt slutligen även i gymnasiet. Det relativa betygssystemet beskrivs enligt följande indelning: framväxt och avveckling (V), funktioner (I), effekter och sidoeffekter (III) samt användning och behov (II och IV). I de empiriska studierna har elever, lärare, arbetsgivare och arbetstagare fått ge sina synpunkter på de relativa betygen. I delstudie V analyseras utvecklingen av det relativa betygssystemet med hjälp av offentliga utredningar, remissvar från elev-, lärar-, aibetsgivar- och arbetstagarorganisationer samt också via riksdagstryck.De relativa betygen beskrivs som starkt knutna till urvalet till högre studier och som ett försök att tillskapa ett urvalsinstrument med möjlighet till jämförbarhet och större rättvisa. Betygen har visat sig spela liten roll vid urvalet till olika arbeten. Betygen fyller en "körkortsfunktion" genom att ange inriktning och linje. I övrigt speglar betygen i huvudsak förmåga att tillgodogöra sig teoretiskt stoff. Vid urvalet till olika arbeten beskrivs en utveckling från formella till informella meriter i form av vissa personlighetsegenskaper, t ex samarbetsförmåga, flexibilitet och utåtriktad läggning. Arbetslivserfarenhet, referenser och personlighetsegenskaper betyder mer vid anställningar än skolbetygen.I avhandlingen anges såväl mättekniska, informationstekniska som socialpsykologiska förklaringar till att det relativa betygssystemet är på väg att avvecklas. Betänkligheter riktas mot ett eventuellt införande av målrelaterade betyg p g a styrningsriskerna för elever och lärare, samt också mot riskerna för en ökad kontroll och ett ökat beroende av avnämarna. I avhandlingen noteras skillnader mellan praktiska och teoretiska linjer när det gäller synen på betyg. Som tänkbara förklaringar anges användningen och behovet av betyg liksom också närheten och kopplingen till näringslivet. Betygens officiella funktioner som informations-, motivations- och urvalsinstrument har gradvis minskat. Tidigare har frågor om styrning och kontroll kommit i bakgrunden i förhållande till de officiella funktionerna. Om målrelaterade betyg införs och om betygens roll som urvalsinstrument försvinner, torde betygens styrnings- och kontrollfunktioner behöva diskuteras och motiveringar till att över huvud taget ha kvar betyg i skolan lyftas fram. / This dissertation, which is mainly the result of a project financed by the National Board of Education, consists of five substudies (I-V) carried out between 1977 and 1991, and a summary analysis (VI). The aim of the dissertation is to study group-referenced marks which are unique for Sweden. In the 1940s they were introduced on trial into elementary school, where they were later permanent, and they were also introduced into comprehensive school, nine-year compulsory school and finally also into upper secondary school. The description of group-referenced marks is divided into the following substudies: development and phase-out (V), functions (I), effects and side-effects (III), and use and requirements (II and IV). In the empirical studies, students, teachers, employers and employees have been asked to give their opinions of group-referenced marks. Substudy V analyses the development of group-referenced marks through official reports, through reactions to these reports from student, teacher, employers' and employees' organizations, and also through official parliamentary publications.Group-referenced marks are described as closely connected with the selection to higher education and as an attempt to construct an instrument of selection offering possibilities of comparability and greater justice. Marks have proved to be of little consequence for employment. They function as a "driving licence" by indicating direction and course programme. Marks reflect, above all, the ability to assimilate theoretical subject-matter. The selection to various employments manifests a development from formal to informal merits in the form of certain qualities, e. g. the ability to co-operate, flexibility and extrovert behaviour. Work experience, references and personal qualities are more important than marks for employmentThe dissertation indicates measurement technological, information technological and socio-psychological explanations of withdrawing group-referenced marks. The dissertation also expresses apprehensions about the potential introduction of criterion-referenced marks owing to the steering effects for pupils and teachers, as well as about the risks of increasing control and dependence on potential employers. Differences between practical and theoretical course programmes regarding attitudes to marks can also be observed. These differences can perhaps be explained by the use and needs of marks as well as by the nearness and connection to industry and commerce. The importance of the official functions of marks as information, motivation and selection instruments has gradually been reduced. Problems of steering and control used to be subordinate to the official functions. If criterion-referenced marks are introduced and if marks lose their selection function, the steering and control functions of marks should be discussed and the motives for preserving marks in school should be presented. / digitalisering@umu