Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-10T18:56:37Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Ana Paula Doebber.pdf: 1939210 bytes, checksum: 224a0181d07a1672cabbad7d7a87733f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-02-09 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The study of linguistic transference phenomena in oral and written narratives, from one s vernacular in use, has frequently brought critics to the literacy process. This critic is also present on the teaching and learning in multilingual speech communities. Therefore, this research is being carried out through school ethnography activities in two classrooms: one in the first grade and the other in the sixth grade, both of primary education in a school located in Pato Bragado, Paraná. On the contrary to what the common sense tells us, bilingualism and bidialectalism are quite common in Brazil. The community speech of Pato Bragado constitutes a complex sociolinguistic context since there communicative interactions among locals, in a social and familiar context, people communicate using more than one language and in more than one variety in each of these languages. The use of more than one language is more restricted to the family environment, but its consequences appear in school, generating certain linguistic traits in the orality and writing of the students who come from these families. It was observed that there are Italian, Polish, German and Paraguayan descendents in the county who speak dialects derived from the language of their ancestors. Phonological traits of their vernacular which are transferred to orality do not usually impose greater stigmatization within their community, however its users report they have difficulties interacting in other communities, in other counties, creating a feeling of ridicule and the need to monitor and change into standard Portuguese. Therefore, the school should have pedagogical practices turned to this linguistic fact. In this research, the main aims are to identify and describe oral and written events of literacy from a school ethnography and narrative perspective. To do that it was checked how student-teacher and student-student interact in practical classroom situations through effective use of linguistic variations as well as how this process happens in the natural transference from the dialectal traits of their mother tongue into Portuguese. Data gathered in this survey made it possible to suggest pedagogical practices which would guide teachers in their didactic practice in bi(multi)lingual communities. It is believed that the result of this study can offer important contributions not only for the student, but also for teachers from bi(multi)lingual communities. It could also be used as information on how to work with the phonological traits of other linguistic systems in the literacy process favoring the students performance in several linguistic contexts. / O estudo de fenômenos de transferências lingüísticas, da língua materna vernácula de uso, em narrativas orais e escritas, tem, com alguma freqüência, destacado críticas no processo de letramento. Essa crítica também se detém sobre o ensino-aprendizagem em comunidades de fala multilíngües. Neste sentido, esta pesquisa está sendo realizada em atividade etnográfica escolar, em duas salas de aula, uma na primeira série e, a outra, em uma sexta série, ambas do Ensino Fundamental, localizadas em Pato Bragado, Paraná. Ao contrário do que o senso comum nos informa, no Brasil o bilingüismo e o bidialetalismo, é bastante comum. A comunidade de fala de Pato Bragado constitui um contexto sociolingüisticamente complexo, pois nas interações comunicativas entre os usuários no contexto social e familiar, as pessoas se comunicam interagindo em mais de uma língua e mais de uma variedade destas línguas. Este uso de mais de uma língua é mais restrito ao ambiente familiar, no entanto seus reflexos estão presentes também na escola, gerando traços lingüísticos na oralidade e na escrita dos alunos provenientes destas famílias. Foi verificado que existem descendentes de italianos, poloneses, alemães e paraguaios no município, os quais falam dialetos da língua de seus ascendentes. Os traços fonológicos da língua materna vernácula transferidos para a oralidade não costumam sofrer grande estigmatização dentro da comunidade, porém seus usuários relatam dificuldades nas interações em outras comunidades, em outros municípios, gerando o sentimento de ridículo e a necessidade de monitoração e mudança em direção ao português normativo. Sendo assim, é preciso que a escola tenha práticas pedagógicas voltadas para este fato lingüístico. Nesta pesquisa, os objetivos são identificar e descrever eventos de letramento oral e escrito, a partir da etnografia escolar e de narrativas, verificando como se dá a interação aluno/professor e aluno/aluno em situações de práticas de sala de aula pelas condições efetivas de variações lingüísticas e como isso ocorre no processo de transferências de traços dialetais da língua materna para o português. A partir deste levantamento, foi possível proporcionar práticas pedagógicas que orientam os professores na prática didática em comunidades bi (multi)língües. Acredita-se que o resultado deste estudo pode oferecer importantes contribuições não só para o aluno como também para o docente de comunidades de fala bi (multi)língües, podendo também servir de subsídio sobre como trabalhar com os traços fonológicos de outros sistemas lingüísticos no processo de alfabetização, favorecendo o desempenho dos alunos em diversos contextos lingüísticos.

Línguas eletrônicas constituídas de filmes nanoestruturados depositados sobre eletrodos metálicos, e empregando a técnica de espectroscopia de impedância como princípio de detecção, vêm apresentando excelentes resultados para a diferenciação de substâncias que constituem os paladares básicos e na detecção de impurezas em amostras líquidas. A principal limitação para o uso comercial é a necessidade da substituição das unidades sensoriais do arranjo, que necessita de recalibração. Nesta tese introduzimos um novo arranjo de unidades sensoriais, constituídos de eletrodos de cromo eletrodepositados, que não necessitam de filmes finos. Usando arranjos de cinco ou dez unidades sensoriais nominalmente idênticas, obtivemos uma língua eletrônica capaz de detectar paladares básicos e íons de cobre em água em concentrações abaixo de 1μM. As diferenças nas respostas elétricas dos eletrodos são oriundas das diferenças na sua morfologia. A alta sensibilidade apresentada foi explorada na análise de vinhos e amostras de águas coletadas de vários rios e lagos. Similarmente às línguas eletrônicas com filmes nanoestruturados, o arranjo sensorial de eletrodos de cromo foi capaz de distinguir vinhos de uma mesma varietal e produtor, mas de diferentes safras, e de um mesmo produtor e safra, mas de diferentes varietais. Tentamos também melhorar o desempenho das línguas eletrônicas combinando unidades constituídas de filmes finos de quitosana e poli(o-etoxianilina). Apesar do interesse nas propriedades advindas da interação entre esses materiais, especialmente quando a quitosana foi utilizada na forma de nanopartículas, o desempenho foi similar ao da língua eletrônica contendo eletrodos de cromo sem filmes. / Electronic tongues based on nanostructured films and employing impedance spectroscopy as the principle of detection have proven excellent to distinguish between basic tastes and detect trace amounts of impurities in liquid samples. The main limitation for a commercial use, though, is the need to replace the sensing units of the sensor array, which requires recalibration, owing to the relatively poor stability of the nanostructured films. In this thesis we introduce a new arrangement for the sensing units, which are produced from electrodeposited chrome electrodes, with no need to adsorb an organic film. Using an array with 5 or 10 nominally identical chrome electrodes, we obtained an electronic tongue capable of detecting basic tastes and copper ions in water down to the 1μM level. The differences in electrical properties for the electrodes arose from differences in morphology. Furthermore, this high sensitivity could be exploited in the analysis of wines, and water samples collected from various rivers and lakes. Similarly to electronic tongues made with nanostructured films, the sensor array with electrodeposited chrome electrodes was capable of distinguishing wines from the same grape and producer, but different vintages, or from the same producer and vintage but different grapes. We also attempted to optimize the performance of electronic tongues by combining sensing units made of chitosan and poly(o-ethoxyaniline). In spite of the interesting properties deriving from the interaction between these components, especially when chitosan nanoparticles were used, the performance of the sensor array was similar to that of the electronic tongue obtained with bare chrome electrodes.

A obesidade e a síndrome metabólica têm aumentado em proporções preocupantes em nível mundial. Além das consequências sistêmicas, a obesidade e suas comorbidades também têm sido relacionadas com a condição bucal. O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar a progressão de lesões cariosas, presença de biofilme dentário, fluxo salivar e presença de saburra lingual em indivíduos eutróficos, sendo avaliados em dois momentos e portadores de síndrome metabólica antes e após a cirurgia bariátrica. A amostra foi constituída por 150 indivíduos, divididos em dois grupos: grupo controle (GC: 75) e grupo obeso (GO: 75), ambos avaliados em T0 e T1, sendo GC 6 meses após a primeira avaliação e GO 6 meses após a cirurgia bariátrica. A avaliação antropométrica dos indivíduos foi realizada por meio do IMC e circunferência da cintura. Os índices ICDAS II e CPOD foram utilizados para avaliar a progressão da cárie dentária. O método de fluorescência verde (QLF- Quantitative Light-induced Fluorescence) avaliou a perda mineral nas superfícies lisas dos dentes e presença de biofilme dentário. O fluxo salivar estimulado foi avaliado em mL/min. O Índice de Saburra Lingual foi utilizado para a avaliação da presença de saburra na língua. Para análise estatística, utilizou-se os testes Qui Quadrado, Exato de Fisher, Mann-Whitney, Kruskal-Wallis e Regressão Logística Múltipla, adotando nível de significância de 5%. Os resultados mostraram que houve diferença significativas entre os grupos, GC apresentou maior número de dentes hígidos (p=0,038) e dentes sem alteração no esmalte (p=0,005) quando comparado ao GO. Ao comparar GC e GO no T1, verificou-se que houve diferença significativa em relação ao CPOD (p<0,0001), dentes restaurados (p<0,0001) e área da lesão (Ws) (p=0,045), sendo as piores condições encontradas encontradas em GO. Observou-se que houve diferença significativa entre a perda mineral e quantidade de biofilme dentário por fluorescência entre os grupos, mas não entre T0 e T1. Diante dos resultados, podese concluir que indivíduos portadores de síndrome metabólica, comparado com os eutróficos, apresentam maior número de lesões cariosas antes e após a cirurgia bariátrica. No presente estudo a cirurgia bariátrica não interferiu na progressão das lesões cariosas, todavia, destaca-se a necessidade de abordagem multiprofissional e contínua, atuando na prevenção de doenças e atenção odontológica. / Obesity and the metabolic syndrome have increased in alarming proportions at world level. Apart from systemic consequences, obesity and its comorbidities have also been related to the oral condition. The aim of this study was to identify the caries lesion progression, presence of dental biofilm, the salivary flow and tongue coating in eutrophic individuals, being evaluated in two moments and individuals with metabolic syndrome before and after undergoing bariatric surgery. The sample consisted of 150 individuals divided into two groups: Control Group (CG: 75) and Obese Group (OG): 75, both evaluated in T0 and T1; CG being evaluated six months after T0, and EG, 6 months after bariatric surgery. Anthropometric assessment of individuals was made by means of BMI and waist circumference measurement. The ICDAS II and DMFT indices were used for evaluating the progression of dental caries. The Quantitative Light-induced Fluorescence (QLF) method, for evaluating mineral loss on the smooth tooth surfaces and the presence for dental biofilm. The stimulated salivary flow was evaluated in mL/min. The Winkel tongue coating index (WTCI) was used to evaluate the presence of tongue coating. For statistical analysis, the Chi- Square, Fishers Exact, Kruskal-Wallis and Multiple Logistic Regression tests were used, adopting a significance level of 5%. The results showed statistical difference between the groups: CG presented a higher; number of healthy teeth (p=0.038) and teeth without changes in enamel (p=0.005) when compared to OG. When comparing CG and EG after the second evaluation (T1), statistically significant difference was verified in relation to DMFT (p<0.0001), restored teeth (p<0.0001) and lesion area (Ws) (p=0.045), being the worst conditions found in OG. It was observed that there was a significant difference between mineral loss and the quantity dental biofilm by fluorescence between groups, but not between T0 and T1. In view of the results, the authors concluded that patients with metabolic syndrome, compared to eutrophic, have a higher number of caries lesions before and after bariatric surgery. In the present study, bariatric surgery did not influence in caries lesion progression, however, highlights the necessity to a continuous multi professional approach to acting in the prevention of diseases and dental care.

A definição de valores de referência a partir de sujeitos saudáveis é fundamental como parâmetro para o diagnóstico na área da saúde. Os objetivos deste estudo foram estabelecer valores de referência para a condição miofuncional orofacial, para as forças orofaciais e para a eficiência mastigatória, por meio de um escore de padronização e analisar as relações entre as variáveis, após estabelecer um índice de desempenho para as forças orofaciais e eficiência mastigatória. De um total de 316 sujeitos, foram selecionados 50 participantes, 21 homens e 29 mulheres, de 18 a 40 anos, sem desordem temporomandibular, sem distúrbio miofuncional orofacial e em normoclusão (classe I de Angle). Os sujeitos foram avaliados por meio do Protocolo de Avaliação Miofuncional Orofacial com Escores (AMIOFE) para investigação da condição miofuncional orofacial. As forças isométricas máximas de mordida direita e esquerda, das bochechas direita e esquerda, da língua na região anterior e dorso e dos lábios foram avaliadas por um dinamômetro eletrônico Kratos® e os valores foram registrados em Newtons (N). Para todas as forças foram realizadas 3 medidas e obtida a média. A eficiência mastigatória foi analisada pelo método colorimétrico com beads, obtendo-se a concentração de fucsina em micrograma por mililitro (µg/ml). A eficiência foi avaliada em situação de mastigação habitual, mastigação unilateral direita e esquerda, durante 20 segundos cada. Para todas as variáveis foi calculado o escore Z, para identificação de seus valores de referência e os pontos de corte que diferenciou os sujeitos normais e alterados; os valores das forças orofaciais e da eficiência mastigatória destes sujeitos foram transformados em índice de desempenho, para 34 sujeitos da amostra que foram considerados normais. O erro casual do método foi calculado para todas as variáveis. Para análise estatística foi utilizado o teste de correlação de Spearman, por meio do Programa MedCalc® e o nível de significância adotado foi p<0,05. Os valores médios de referência estabelecidos a partir do escore Z foram: para a condição miofuncional orofacial 95,79 ± 3,74; para a média da força de mordida direita e esquerda 431,08 ± 138,01N; para a média da força de bochechas direita e esquerda 17,92 ± 7,44N; para a força de língua na região anterior 9,45 ± 4,01N; para a força de língua na região de dorso 13,44 ± 5,46N; para a força de lábios 4,31 ± 1,48N; para a eficiência mastigatória habitual 0,72 ± 0,31µg/ml; para a eficiência mastigatória a direita 0,71 ± 0,30µg/ml e para a eficiência mastigatória a esquerda 0,78 ± 0,37µg/ml. Não foram encontradas correlações entre os índices de desempenho das forças orofaciais e da eficiência mastigatória (r=0,102, p>0,05), entre o índice de desempenho das forças orofaciais e a condição miofuncional orofacial (r=-0,005, p>0,05), nem entre o índice de desempenho da eficiência mastigatória e a condição miofuncional orofacial (r=0,059, p>0,05). Não foi observado neste estudo relação entre a biomecânica orofacial e a eficiência mastigatória. / The definition of reference values of healthy subjects is a fundamental parameter for the diagnosis in health. The aims of this study were to establish reference values based on standardized score for the orofacial myofunctional condition, for the orofacial strength and for the masticatory efficiency, and to analyze the relationships between them, after establishing a performance index for orofacial strength and masticatory efficiency. From a total of 316 subjects, 50 participants were selected, 21 men and 29 women, ranging from 18 to 40 years old, without temporomandibular disorder, no orofacial myofunctional disorder and presenting normal occlusion. Subjects were assessed using the Orofacial Myofunctional Evaluation Protocol with Scores (OMES) to investigate the orofacial myofunctional condition. The orofacial strength evaluated were maximal isometric bite forces on the right and left sides, maximal isometric cheeks strength on the right and left sides, maximal isometric tongue strength on the anterior and dorsum region and maximal isometric lips strength using an electronic dynamometer Kratos®. The values were recorded in Newton (N). The mean value of three trials of each orofacial strength was obtained. The masticatory efficiency was analyzed by colorimetric method with beads. The fuchsine concentration in micrograms per milliliter (µg/ml) was obtained. The masticatory efficiency was evaluated in three conditions: habitual, right and left unilateral chewing, for 20 seconds each one. For all variables, the Z scores were calculated to determine the reference values and cutoff values that differentiate the normal and abnormal subjects. The orofacial strength and masticatory efficiency values were transformed into the performance index, for 34 participants that were defined as normal subjects. The random error was calculated for all variables. Statistical analysis was performed using Spearman correlation test, using the MedCalc® program and the level of significance was p<0.05. The reference values (mean and standard deviation), established from the Z score, were 95.79 ± 3.74 for the orofacial myofunctional condition; 431.08 ± 138.01N for the maximal isometric bite force; 17.92 ± 7.44N for the maximal isometric cheeks strength; 9.45 ± 4.01N for the maximal isometric tongue strength in the anterior region; 13.44 ± 5.46N for the maximal isometric tongue strength in the dorsum region; 4.31 ± 1.48N for the maximal isometric lips strength; 0.72 ± 0.31µg/ml for the habitual masticatory efficiency; 0.71 ± 0.30µg/ml for the right masticatory efficiency, 0.78 ± 0.37µg/ml for the left masticatory efficiency. No correlations were found neither between the orofacial strength performance index and masticatory efficiency performance index (r=0.102, p>0.05), the orofacial strength performance index and orofacial myofunctional condition (r=-0.005, p>0.05), nor between the masticatory efficiency performance index and orofacial myofunctional condition (r=0.059, p>0.05). There was no relationship between the biomechanics orofacial and masticatory efficiency in this study.

A ordem Cetacea compreende golfinhos e baleias, mamíferos totalmente adaptados ao ambiente aquático. A língua de duas espécies de cetáceos, Pontoporia blainvillei e Sotalia fluviatilis, foram utilizadas para descrição da morfologia das papilas linguais e da superfície de interface epitélio-tecido conjuntivo da lâmina própria, empregando as técnicas de microscopia de luz e eletrônica de varredura. As línguas foram fixadas e divididas em três porções: rostral, médio e caudal e processadas conforme os protocolos das técnicas utilizadas. A língua da Pontoporia blainvillei e Sotalia fluviatilis estava revestida por um epitélio estratificado queratinizado, sendo possível observar as camadas basal, espinhosa, granulosa e córnea. Pode-se notar que na língua, o tecido conjuntivo denso apresentava vasos sanguíneos e profundamente relacionado com o tecido muscular. A superfície de interface epitélio-tecido conjuntivo da lâmina própria apresentou papilas conjuntivas de várias formas. Elas correspondem às papilas filiformes e valadas, mostrando feixes de fibras colágenas em disposição original. Na microscopia de luz polarizada revelou-se fibras colágenas do tipo I e III. No terço médio e caudal de ambas as espécies foram encontradas ácinos de glândulas salivares. As amostras tratadas com solução de hidróxido de sódio, tiveram a camada epitelial removida, e as papilas conjuntivas foram observadas em aspecto tridimensional. Foi possível observar que a superfície dorsal de ambas as espécies é totalmente recoberta por papilas conjuntivas de aspecto filiforme. Observa-se também a presença dos forames dos ductos das glândulas salivares nas porções média e caudal da língua, sendo eles mais numerosos nos filhotes. Morfometricamente, as papilas conjuntivas apresentaram maior comprimento na espécie Sotalia fluviatilis do que na Pontoporia blainville. Foi observado somente na espécie Pontoporia blainvillei estruturas conjuntivas arredondadas na região média e caudal. Embora as áreas dessas estruturas tenham sido maiores na região caudal que na média, estatisticamente estes resultados não foram significativos (P&gt;0,05). / The Cetacea order comprises dolphins and whales, mammals totally adapted to the aquatic ambient. The tongue of two cetaceans species, Pontoporia blainvillei and Sotalia fluviatilis, was studied for description of the morphology of the lingual papillae and of interface epithelium the connective tissue surface, using the light and scanning electron microscopic techniques. The tongues were fixed and divided in three portions: rostral, medium and caudal and treated according to the protocols of techniques used. The tongues of the Pontoporia blainvillei and Sotalia fluviatilis were covered by keratinized stratified epithelium, being that is possible to verify the basal, spinosa, granular and cornetiel ayers. In the tongue the dense connective tissue of lamina propria showed blood vessels and muscular layer was deeply related. The interface epithelium-connective tissue surface of the lamina propria presented connective tissue papillae which are various in shape. They correspond to the filiform and vallate papillae showing the collagen fibers bunches in original disposition. In the polarized light microscopy revealed collagen fibers type I and III. In the medium and caudal third of both species various groupins of salivary gland acini. The samples treated with sodium hydroxide solution, the epithelial layer was removed and the connective tissue papillae were observed in three-dimensional SEM images. It was possible to observe that the dorsal surface of the both species is totally covered by connective tissue papillae of filiform aspect. We observed also the presence of the ducts of the salivary glands in the media and caudal portions of the tongue, being them more numerous in pups. Morphometric analysis showed that the connective tissue papillae presented larger length in the Sotalia fluviatilis than in the Pontoporia blainville samples. The round connectives structures in the media and caudal portions were observed only the Pontoporia blainvillei species. Although, the areas of those structures have been major in the caudal region than media, and these results were not signifficant (P&gt;0,05).

L’objectif de cette recherche est d’étudier le comportement orthographique des élèves de l’école primaire face à l’hétérographie, réalité linguistique difficile à acquérir. Les différentes ressources du système graphique pour distinguer, à l’écrit, ce qui se confond à l’oral constituent un confort pour le lecteur mais une difficulté pour le scripteur, surtout pour les mots grammaticaux les plus fréquents. Pour produire les graphies normées de a/à, la/là, ou/où, et/est, son/sont, on/ont, mes/mais, ce/se, les élèves doivent apprendre la polyvalence des graphèmes et s’affranchir de la correspondance phono-graphologique. La difficulté n’est pas la même pour chaque paire d’homophones. Ces mots-outils sont enseignés par paires formées sur le critère de l’identité phonique. La méthode utilisée en classe repose sur deux grands principes, les procédés de substitution et leur application dans des exercices. Chaque paire a son propre procédé. Les productions écrites et les commentaires métagraphiques recueillis auprès d’un échantillon de 240 élèves scolarisés du CE2 à la 6ème ainsi qu’une enquête auprès des enseignants et l’examen de manuels scolaires ont permis de mettre en regard les méthodes d’enseignement et l’interprétation que les élèves en font. Les résultats de l’analyse témoignent de la difficulté des élèves à mettre en œuvre les procédés appris, en fonction des contextes. Si les élèves sont capables de citer les paires apprises, leurs emplois en production écrite révèlent une insécurité linguistique. Les conclusions de ce travail permettent de formuler des propositions didactiques. / The aim of this research is to study the spelling practice of primary school pupils facing the heterography of homophonic words, a linguistic reality difficult to acquire. The different resources of the graphic system to distinguish, in writing, what is confused orally, constitute a comfort for the reader but a difficulty for the writer, especially for the most frequent grammatical words. To produce the graphics for a/à, la/là, ou/où, et/est, son/sont, on/ont, mes/mais, ce/se, pupils have to learn the polyvalency of the graphemes and get away from the phonographological connection. The difficulty is not the same for each pair of homophones. These tool words are taught in pairs based on identical phonics. The method used in class rests on 2 main principles, the process of substitution and their application in exercises. Each pair has its own process. Written work and metagraphic commentaries taken from a sample of 240 pupils aged 8-12 as well as a survey of teachers and a study of school textbooks allow us to focus on the teaching methods and pupils’ interpretations. The results of the analysis demonstrate the difficulty pupils have putting learned procedures into practice, in keeping with the context. While the pupils are able to quote the learned pairs, their use in written work demonstrates a linguistic insecurity. The conclusions of this work allow us to formulate some didactic proposals.

The main aim of this study is to examine six pupils’ attitudes to their mother tongue and their multilingualism. A secondary aim is to investigate the two class teachers’ attitudes to the students’ mother tongue and multilingualism. The method of data collection is based on semi-structured interviews with six students in the third and fourth grades of compulsory school and their two teachers. The participating students were either born in Sweden or arrived before the age of four. The empirical evidence was analysed on the basis of the idea that attitudes can be described as composed of three components: the affective, the conative and the cognitive component. The analysis shows that the students exclusively express a positive attitude to their native language and their multilingualism. A cognitive element in the students’ appreciation of their multilingualism is that they perceive themselves as balanced multilinguals, i.e. master all their languages as well, albeit in different areas. The students express pride and do not seem to hesitate to use their mother tongue. However, it appears that the school is a place associated with the use of Swedish and not their mother tongue. The interviewed teachers express a positive attitude to multilingualism and the students’ maintaining their mother tongue. At the same time, though, the teachers do not seem to be prepared to incorporate the students’ language resources in their teaching.

This study aims at exploring to what extent transfer plays a role for young Italian learners of English. The informants consisted of a group of Italian high school students whose English written compositions are investigated. The collection of data is made up of an error analysis based on Pit Corder’s methodology (Corder in Ellis 2008: 46), in which six different linguistic categories are examined such as collocations, word order, the past tenses with special focus on the simple present perfect versus the simple past, furthermore the null subject parameter, false friends and subject-verb agreement. A brief discussion is also dedicated to the difference between what constitutes an error and a mistake. What emerges in this study is that the category of collocations is the one in which most instances of transfer errors are found followed by word order and the use of the simple past tense. Finally, the research aims to find out what could be the plausible reasons as to why certain categories appear to be more subject to the transfer phenomena.

The purpose of the study is to get an insight into how to work with multilingualism in the activities at preschool. I want to see how the preschool teachers promote children's different native languages and if language is something they discuss in the activities. I have chosen to explore if there is a difference in the work with the toddlers and the older children where the majority of the children are foreign compared to pre sections were the majority of the children are swedish. I have interviewed preschool teachers at their workplaces and some over the phone. My study shows that they work more with multilingual languages at the pre section where the majority were foreign. On the other pre sections were the majority of the children are swedish they focus on the swedish language and engage the parents to teach their children their mother tongue

Namibia is a country where the official language has been English since independence in 1990. There are different national languages in the country and a majority of the people do not have English as a mother tongue. Nevertheless, the language of instruction from fourth grade and onwards is indeed English. Consequently, for the majority of the population the education is in their second language. What this essay explores is the role English as a second language has as a medium of instruction and the implications it may have. It is a minor field study that was carried out with the help of a scholarship from SIDA (Swedish Agency for International Development Cooperation) and it took place in a school in Northern Namibia, April and May 2007. It is a qualitative study that explores the use of English among teachers and students as well as the transition from mother tongue instruction to English instruction and the implications that this can have for the quality of education. The reality of the Namibian students that have to study and perform in a second language is questioned and discussed from pedagogical and linguistic points of view. The results show that most pupils do not speak English before starting fourth grade. Furthermore, the sudden transition from mother tongue to English instruction creates some descent in the participation of the pupils and possibly in the learning, not only of the new language but also of the content subjects. As far as the teachers concern, there are positive but ambiguous opinions among them concerning English as a medium of instruction.