Syftet med detta självständiga arbete är att bidra med mer kunskap om hur grundskoleelever i musikklass med körprofil i Sverige uppfattar fenomenet notläsning. I bakgrundskapitlet presenteras en kort historik över notskriftens historia, en redogörelse för musikklassen som fenomen samt definitioner av termer som används i detta arbete. Den tidigare forskningen fokuserar på fenomenet notläsning utifrån de särskilda utmaningar som sångare möter jämfört med instrumentalister. Det teoretiska perspektivet fenomenografi ligger till grund för arbetet. Genom halvstrukturerade kvalitativa intervjuer med sjutton elever i årskurs åtta från en musikklass med körprofiol har empiriskt material samlats in vilket sedan analyserats med en fenomenografisk dataanalys. Enligt studiens resultat uppfattar eleverna fenomenet notläsning på sex kvalitativt skilda sätt: som ett verktyg för att tillägna sig musik genom att avkoda ett intervall mellan två toner, som ett verktyg för att distribuera och bevara musik över historiska avstånd, som ett verktyg för självständighet och variation i tolkning och framförande utifrån en noterad förlaga, som ett verktyg som möjliggör högre arbetstakt i musikundervisningen, som ett verktyg för överblick i en i övrigt gehörsbaserad personlig inlärningsstrategi, samt som en hämmande faktor för samspel, sångteknik och självförtroende i framförandet av körmusik. Resultatet jämförs med tidigare forskning och möjliga pedagogiska implikationer presenteras. / The purpose of this study is to contribute with more knowledge about how students in a high school music class with choir profile perceive the phenomenon of reading music. In the background chapter, a short account of the history of musical notation is presented, an account of the phenomenon of a music class with choir orientation as the term is used in this study, as well as definitions of terms that are used in this study. The prior research focuses on the phenomenon of reading music from the perspective of the special difficulties that singers experience in comparison to instrumentalists. The theoretical perspective of phenomenography is the basis for the study. Through semi-structured qualitative interviews with seventeen students in eighth grade from a music class with choir profile, empirical data has been collected which has then been analyzed with a phenomenographical analysis. According to the study the students perceive the phenomenon of reading music in six qualitatively different ways: As a tool for learning music by decoding an interval between two notes, as a tool for distributing and preserving music across historical distances, as a tool for independence and variation in interpretation and performance based on a notated source material, as a tool that makes possible a higher work rate in music lessons, as a tool for overview in an otherwise ear-based personal learning strategy, as well as an impeding factor for interplay, singing technique and confidence in the performance of choir music. The results are compared to prior research, and possible pedagogical implications are presented.

[ES] Desde el siglo pasado, el dictado musical ha sido la principal práctica utilizada en la asignatura de Lenguaje Musical de los conservatorios para la formación del oído musical. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivos: 1. Analizar la situación actual de la educación del oído y el fenómeno de la audición desde diferentes enfoques; y 2. Elaborar una propuesta metodológica para el segundo curso de Lenguaje Musical de las Enseñanzas Profesionales de Música de los conservatorios de la Comunidad Valenciana, a través de este análisis previo. Para ello: se ha dado una visión de la formación del oído musical a través de las enseñanzas musicales, desde el punto de vista del alumno y del profesor, y se han analizado los elementos que influyen en la audición y que condicionan su entrenamiento musical, así como las estrategias más convenientes para formar de manera integral el oído musical. Con esta tesis se pretende ofrecer una propuesta didáctica, metodológicamente amplia y variada, que contribuya de manera significativa al entrenamiento auditivo, fundamentada en la utilización de la literatura musical como fuente principal de contenido. Las conclusiones obtenidas en este trabajo ofrecerán una alternativa metodológica al dictado musical tradicional para, a través del repertorio musical de todas las épocas, poder formar el oído musical de una manera más completa e integral. / [CA] Des del segle passat, el dictat musical ha sigut la principal pràctica utilitzada en l'assignatura de Llenguatge Musical dels conservatoris per a la formació de l'oïda musical. El present treball té com a objectius: 1. Analitzar la situació actual de l'educació de l'oïda i el fenomen de l'audició des de diferents enfocaments; i 2. Elaborar una proposta metodològica per al segon curs de Llenguatge Musical dels Ensenyaments Professionals de Música dels conservatoris de la Comunitat Valenciana, a través d'aquesta anàlisi prèvia. Per a això: s'ha donat una visió de la formació de l'oïda musical a través dels ensenyaments musicals, des del punt de vista de l'alumne i del professor, i s'han analitzat els elements que influeixen en l'audició i que condicionen el seu entrenament musical, així com les estratègies més convenients per a formar de manera integral l'oïda musical. Amb aquesta tesi es pretén oferir una proposta didàctica, metodològicament àmplia i variada, que contribuïsca de manera significativa a l'entrenament auditiu, fonamentada en la utilització de la literatura musical com a font principal de contingut. Les conclusions obtingudes en aquest treball oferiran una alternativa metodològica al dictat musical tradicional per a, a través del repertori musical de totes les èpoques, poder formar l'oïda musical d'una manera més completa i integral. / [EN] Since last century, Musical dictation has been the main practice used in the subject of Solfeggio in conservatories for the ear training. The aims of the present work are as follows: 1. To analyse the current situation of ear training and the phenomenon of hearing from different approaches; and 2. To elaborate a methodological proposal for the second year of Solfeggio in Professional Music Education in the conservatories of the Valencian Community, through this previous analysis. To this end: a vision has been given of the ear training through musical education, from the point of view of the pupil and the teacher, and the elements that influence hearing and condition musical training have been analysed, as well as the most suitable strategies for the integral ear training. The aim of this thesis is to offer a didactic proposal, methodologically broad and varied, which contributes significantly to ear training, based on the use of musical literature as the main source of content. The conclusions obtained in this work will offer a methodological alternative to traditional musical dictation in order to train the musical ear in a more complete and integral way through the musical repertoire of all periods. / Martínez Casas, V. (2024). La formación del oído musical en el 2º curso de la asignatura de lenguaje musical de las enseñanzas profesionales de música: una propuesta didáctica fundamentada en la literatura musical [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/202616

O objetivo principal deste trabalho é estudar os processos de desenvolvimento da escuta melódica de adultos, sem formação musical, integrados a coros vocacionais, com o intuito de poder melhorar a performance vocal do grupo. Tendo como objeto o processo de formação do Coral Oficina Comunicantus, grupo integrado ao Comunicantus: Laboratório Coral do Departamento de Música da Escola de Comunicações e Artes da Universidade de São Paulo. Nosso método de coleta de dados foi baseado nas observações dos ensaios e nas análises das avaliações (relatórios) feitas pelos monitores integrados ao Comunicantus: Laboratório Coral, através dos quais procuramos vislumbrar as necessidades de aprendizagem dos coralistas do coro supracitado. Por se tratar de uma pesquisa ora de observação ora interativa, atuamos combinando tais ações e orientando o desenvolvimento das habilidades inerentes à escuta melódica em aspectos pré-definidos. Durante o processo investigativo, utilizamos como método referencial de análise, dos conteúdos musicais, os trabalhos do Prof. Dr. Marco Antonio da Silva Ramos e do Prof. Paulo Rubens Morais Costa e, por outro lado, a produção bibliográfica de educadores como César Coll e Teresa Mauri, que atuaram na reforma escolar espanhola, de forma a subsidiar nossas escolhas pedagógicas e didáticas para atuar junto aos coralistas. Como resultado desse processo, pudemos desenvolver algumas atividades que contribuíram para a resolução de certas necessidades de aprendizagem momentâneas deste grupo e também suscitaram a criação de outras que foram utilizadas oportunamente, após o término do prazo definido de observação e interação a que este trabalho se refere. / This dissertation aims mainly at studying the processes of development of melodic hearing by adults who do not have any musical formation and yet join vocational choirs in order to improve the vocal performance of the group. Its object is the process of formation of the Educational Lab-Choir Comunicantus, which belongs to the Comunicantus Choral Office of the Department of Music of the School of Communication and Arts of the University of São Paulo. The method of data collection was based on rehearsal observations and on the analysis of evaluations (reports) made by student trainees integrated in the Comunicantus Choir Office, through which we trie to identify the gaps in learning of the choir singers. As the research is partly made up of observations and partly interactive, action was taken so as to combine these actions and give advice on the development of skills innate to melodic hearing in predefined aspects. Along the process of investigation, the Referencial de Análises of the musical contents by Professor D. Marco Antonio da Silva Ramos and Professor Paulo Rubens Morais Costa were used as a method. On the other hand, the works by educators as César Coll and Teresa Mauri, who worked in the Spanish school reform, were used to provide pedagogical and didactic choices for us to act with the choral singers. As a result of this process, some activities were developed that contributed to offer solution to some specific learning needs of this group and also made possible the creation of others that were used, whenever suitable, after the period of observation and interaction.

O objetivo principal deste trabalho é estudar os processos de desenvolvimento da escuta melódica de adultos, sem formação musical, integrados a coros vocacionais, com o intuito de poder melhorar a performance vocal do grupo. Tendo como objeto o processo de formação do Coral Oficina Comunicantus, grupo integrado ao Comunicantus: Laboratório Coral do Departamento de Música da Escola de Comunicações e Artes da Universidade de São Paulo. Nosso método de coleta de dados foi baseado nas observações dos ensaios e nas análises das avaliações (relatórios) feitas pelos monitores integrados ao Comunicantus: Laboratório Coral, através dos quais procuramos vislumbrar as necessidades de aprendizagem dos coralistas do coro supracitado. Por se tratar de uma pesquisa ora de observação ora interativa, atuamos combinando tais ações e orientando o desenvolvimento das habilidades inerentes à escuta melódica em aspectos pré-definidos. Durante o processo investigativo, utilizamos como método referencial de análise, dos conteúdos musicais, os trabalhos do Prof. Dr. Marco Antonio da Silva Ramos e do Prof. Paulo Rubens Morais Costa e, por outro lado, a produção bibliográfica de educadores como César Coll e Teresa Mauri, que atuaram na reforma escolar espanhola, de forma a subsidiar nossas escolhas pedagógicas e didáticas para atuar junto aos coralistas. Como resultado desse processo, pudemos desenvolver algumas atividades que contribuíram para a resolução de certas necessidades de aprendizagem momentâneas deste grupo e também suscitaram a criação de outras que foram utilizadas oportunamente, após o término do prazo definido de observação e interação a que este trabalho se refere. / This dissertation aims mainly at studying the processes of development of melodic hearing by adults who do not have any musical formation and yet join vocational choirs in order to improve the vocal performance of the group. Its object is the process of formation of the Educational Lab-Choir Comunicantus, which belongs to the Comunicantus Choral Office of the Department of Music of the School of Communication and Arts of the University of São Paulo. The method of data collection was based on rehearsal observations and on the analysis of evaluations (reports) made by student trainees integrated in the Comunicantus Choir Office, through which we trie to identify the gaps in learning of the choir singers. As the research is partly made up of observations and partly interactive, action was taken so as to combine these actions and give advice on the development of skills innate to melodic hearing in predefined aspects. Along the process of investigation, the Referencial de Análises of the musical contents by Professor D. Marco Antonio da Silva Ramos and Professor Paulo Rubens Morais Costa were used as a method. On the other hand, the works by educators as César Coll and Teresa Mauri, who worked in the Spanish school reform, were used to provide pedagogical and didactic choices for us to act with the choral singers. As a result of this process, some activities were developed that contributed to offer solution to some specific learning needs of this group and also made possible the creation of others that were used, whenever suitable, after the period of observation and interaction.

Felix Saul (1883-1942) var verksam som körledare, musikskribent och musikpedagog, och undervisade främst i sin egen musikskola, Stockholms privata konservatorium (SPK). Syftet med studien är att undersöka den pedagogik som Felix Saul tillämpade i sin musikundervisning i barngrupper på SPK. Empirin utgörs av intervjuer med Sauls tidigare elever, och av hans egna artikelserier om musikpedagogik. Materialet har analyserats utifrån ett övergripande kulturpsykologiskt perspektiv. Resultatet visar att Sauls undervisning som syftade till att utveckla elevernas musikalitet i stor utsträckning följde Tonika-do-metoden som den beskrivs av samtida litteratur, men att han lade större vikt vid ackordfunktioner och rytmikövningar, och att lek var en central del av undervisningen. Genom undervisningen fick eleverna tillgång till en omfångsrik verktygslåda med kulturella verktyg i form av konventioner att strukturera, uttrycka och representera musik, som de i fortsatt lärande kunde kombinera till individuella strategier för notläsning, interpretation och i musiklyssnande. Av studien har också framkommit att Saul var en betydelsefull musikpedagog trots att han inte fullt ut var accepterad av etablissemanget. / Felix Saul (1883-1942) was engaged as a choiremaster, music writer and music teacher, mainly at his own music school: Stockholms privata konservatorium (SPK). The purpose of this study is to describe how Felix Saul tought children's groups at SPK, and what pedagogy he employed. The empirical material consists of interviews with students who participated in Saul's children's groups and Saul's own series of articles about his music pedagogy. The material has been analyzed from a cultural psychological perspective. The result show that the teaching methods used by Saul to a large extent followed the Tonika-do method as it was described in the contemporary literature, but with a bigger emphasis on harmonic theory and eurhythmics, and that playing games was a central part of the educational activities. The education gave the students access to cultural tool-box a variety of tools in the form of established music-cultural conventions of structuring, expressing and representing music, that they could combine to create individual learning strategies for sight reading, interpretation as well as listening to music. In this study Saul has emerged as an influential music educator even though he was not fully accepted by the establishment.

xiii, 221 p. : ill., music, forms. A print copy of this title is available through the UO Libraries under the call number: MUSIC MT35 .M87 2006 / The main purpose of the study was to examine the effects of learning songs by ear in multiple keys on skills in playing by ear and sight-reading. Secondary purposes of the study were to explore the effects of instruction on student attitudes, and to consider differential effects due to music aptitude. Students were brass and woodwind musicians ( N =28) in grades 7--8, placed in one of two instructional groups according to music aptitude, instrument, and music background. Time for instruction was three 20-minute lessons per week for four weeks. Students in the experimental group learned songs by ear in the keys of Bb, Db, and G concert, while students in the contact-control group practiced technical exercises in those same keys. Before and after instruction, students performed a well-known melody by ear in the keys of Bb, Db, and G concert, as well as a short etude in each of the three keys. Two adjudicators listened to recorded performances and evaluated pitch accuracy. To assess the effects of instruction on performance, repeated-measures ANOVAs considered the variables of group, time, and key. The experimental group improved significantly in playing by ear in the keys of Db and G concert, p < .001, but not in Bb. The contact-control group did not improve significantly in playing by ear in any of the keys. Both groups improved significantly in sight-reading in all three keys, p < .001. Analyses of qualitative and quantitative data from a researcher-authored attitude survey indicated that students in the experimental group perceived significant improvement in the new keys of Db and G, while students in the contact-control group did not perceive improvement. There were no statistically significant effects of music aptitude on performance achievement or attitude. Whether this was because the sample sizes were too small for the detection of effects, or whether there were no significant effects, is not known. The results of the study suggest that learning songs by ear may benefit student musicians. / Committee in Charge: Dr. Harry E. Price, Chair; Dr. Michael D. Bullis; Dr. Phyllis M. Paul; Dr. Steve Vacchi

Der Beitrag plädiert für eine stärkere Berücksichtigung der Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts im Curriculum Hörerziehung. Dies geschieht nicht zuletzt in Hinblick auf die Befruchtung, welche hierdurch der ›klassische‹ Bereich erfährt. Aus der Arbeit mit Neuer Musik in der Gehörbildung werden drei Schwerpunkte vorgestellt: Lars Edlunds Modus Novus, die Arbeit mit Lückentexten und die speziell für Hörübungen mit nichttonaler Musik entwickelte Methode der Klangskizze. / This article makes the case for the stronger consideration of twentieth-century music in the aural-skills curricula. The argument addresses among other things the benefits this brings for “classical” repertoire. Three priorities are set based on the author’s experience with new music in aural-skills class: Lars Edlund’s Modus Novus, fill-in-the-blank activities, and a method of sketching sound developed particularly for the training of aural skills regarding non-tonal music.

Die Entwicklung der Musik im 20. Jahrhundert hat das Fach Gehörbildung vor neue Herausforderungen gestellt. Durch einen neuen Umgang mit den musikalischen Parametern (Tonhöhe, Klangfarbe, Dauer und Lautstärke) drohte die übliche Form des Gehörbildungsunterrichts und dessen traditioneller Gegenstand (Melodie, Harmonie, Rhythmus) als überholt betrachtet zu werden. Diese Situation hat ein neues Fach hervorgebracht, das an der Grenze zwischen Gehörbildung und Analyse angesiedelt ist. Angesichts der Komplexität der im 20. Jahrhundert stark individuell geprägten Tonsprache eines jeden Komponisten, die das unmittelbare Verständnis eines Werkes erschweren kann, scheint es absolut notwendig, den Studierenden mehr abzuverlangen als das Erarbeiten technischer Hörreflexe und das Beherrschen handwerklicher Mittel. Sie sollten über die Oberfläche eines ersten Höreindruckes hinausgeführt werden und mit rhythmischen und formalen Strukturen, Klangphänomenen sowie mit Aspekten der Zeitbehandlung oder der Zeitwahrnehmung konfrontiert werden. Ihre Hörfähigkeit sollte hinsichtlich dieser Parameter entwickelt und ihr Bewusstsein für die Problematik der Rezeption des zeitgenössischen Repertoires geschärft werden. Die Gleichbedeutung des Gelesenen und des Gehörten sollte für einen Berufsmusiker die technische Basis bilden und das innere Hören der gelesenen Partituren sowie das unmittelbare Sehen eines Schriftbildes des Gehörten sollten automatisch erfolgen können. Darüber hinaus scheint es wichtig, mit dem Unterschied zwischen dem ›Hörbaren‹ (die wahrnehmbaren musikalischen Strukturen) und dem ›Unhörbaren‹ (dem Intentionalen sowie dem Handwerklichen) konfrontiert zu sein. Am Beispiel der ersten Offrande von Edgar Varèse wird eine höranalytische Arbeit präsentiert, die diese Herausforderung entspricht: Ziel war es, die reine Beschreibung des Ablaufs und der verschiedenen musikalischen Ereignissen des Stückes für eine tiefgreifendere Analyse zu nutzen, die sich nicht auf der Oberfläche der instinktiven Wahrnehmung der Musik beschränkt, sondern versucht, die Homogenität des scheinbar zerstreuten musikalischen Materials und die Interaktion dessen einzelnen Elementen zu erfassen, um die tatsächlich sehr kompakte und dichte Einheitlichkeit des Stückes ans Licht zu bringen. Erst mit einem klaren und präzisen Verständnis dieser engen Verknüpfungen kann ein globales Hören des Stückes zu einem richtigen Hör-Erlebnis werden, das eine tiefere Bedeutungsebene der Musik erreicht. / The development of music in the 20th century has presented new challenges for the subject of ear training. Due to new approaches to musical parameters (pitch, timbre, duration and volume), the usual form of ear training and its traditional object (melody, harmony, rhythm) is threatened with obsolescence. This situation has created a new subject located on the boundary between ear training and analysis. Given the complexity of each composer’s highly individual language in the 20th century, which can obscure the comprehension of these works, it seems necessary to demand more from students than the development of technical listening reflexes and the mastery of craftsmanship. They should be carried beyond the surface of a first impression to be confronted with rhythmic and formal structures, sound phenomena as well as aspects of time treatment or perception of time. Their hearing ability should be developed in consideration of these parameters as well as their awareness of the problem of reception of the contemporary repertoire. Bringing into equivalence that which is read with what is heard should form the technical basis for a professional musician. Thus, the inner hearing of the score as well as the formation of a clear picture of what is sounding should automatically take place. In addition, it seems important to be confronted with the difference between the “audible” (the perceptible musical structures) and the “inaudible” (the musical thinking and craftsmanship). Using the example of the first of Edgar Varèse’s Offrandes, a hearing-analytical work is presented that meets this challenge: the aim was to use a pure description of the piece’s various musical events for a deeper analysis, one which is not limited to the surface of the instinctive perception of the music but tries instead to grasp the homogeneity of the seemingly scattered musical material and illuminate the piece’s compact unity through the interaction of its individual elements. Only with a clear and precise understanding of these close connections can exposure to the piece become a real listening experience that reaches the music’s deeper levels.