Darbe atlikta teorinė specialiųjų poreikių mokinių integracijos į bendrojo lavinimo mokyklas situacijos bei mokinių matematinių gebėjimų analizė. Iškelta hipotezė, kad specialiosiose mokyklose besimokančių 10 klasės nežymiai protiškai atsilikusių mokinių matematiniai gebėjimai baigiant pagrindinę mokyklą yra panašūs kaip ir toje pačioje klasėje bendrojo lavinimo mokyklose besimokančių nežymiai protiškai atsilikusių mokinių, pasitvirtino. Anketinės apklausos metodu buvo atliktas tyrimas, kurio tikslas - įvertinti ir palyginti 10 klasės nežymiai protiškai atsilikusių mokinių, besimokančių skirtingo tipo ugdymo įstaigose, matematikos gebėjimus baigiant pagrindinę mokyklą. Atlikta kiekybinė duomenų analizė. Tyrime dalyvavo šešiasdešimt 10 klasės mokinių, besimokančių įvairiose Lietuvos mokyklose (30 bendrojo lavinimo mokyklos mokinių ir 30 specialiosios mokyklos mokinių), be to buvo apklausti 20 bendrojo lavinimo mokyklos mokytojų, dirbančių su nežymiai protiškai atsilikusiais mokiniais. Empirinėje dalyje nagrinėjami nežymiai protiškai atsilikusių mokinių, besimokančių specialiosiose mokyklose ir integruotai, matematikos programos įsisavinimo lygis. Svarbiausios empirinio tyrimo išvados: 1. Palyginus nežymiai protiškai atsilikusių mokinių matematinius gebėjimus pagal specialiosios mokyklos programą galima teigti, kad abiejų grupių mokinių programinės medžiagos įsisavinimo lygis beveik nesiskiria, o esantis skirtumas yra toks nežymus ir parodo, kad abiejų tipų mokyklų mokinių... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / The work presents a theoretical analysis of the situation of SEN children’s integration into comprehensive schools and their mathematical abilities. The hypothesis raised in this work, i.e. that the mathematical abilities of slightly mentally deficient 10th formers at special and comprehensive schools are very much similar, has been approved. An investigation has been carried out in a survey method with a purpose to evaluate the mathematical abilities at the period of graduating from the basic school of slightly mentally deficient 10th formers’ at different educational institutions. A quantitative data analysis has been made. Sixty 10th formers from different schools in Lithuania (30 children from comprehensive schools, and 30 from special education schools) have been investigated, as well as 20 teachers from comprehensive schools, that work with slightly mentally deficient children, have been interviewed. The empiric part of the work deals with slightly mentally deficient children’s from special education schools and those who are integrated in the comprehensive schools level of mathematical knowledge. The following are the main conclusions drawn from the empiric investigation: 1. After comparing slightly mentally deficient children’s from both groups abilities to absorb the information at maths, it turned out that these abilities are rather equal, and the difference, if any, is so little, that it only supports the idea that children’s from the special education... [to full text]

Darbe atlikta teorinė žemesniųjų lavinamųjų klasių mokinių psichosocialinės raidos, veiklos ypatumų, veiklos priemonių – žaislų bei elektronikos ugdymo svarbos ir turinio parinkimo ypatumų analizė. Iškelta hipotezė, kad mokinių gebėjimas saugiai eksploatuoti jų aplinkoje sutinkamus elektroninius prietaisus bei prietaisus su elektronikos elementais sudaro optimalias prielaidas vaikų psichosocialinei raidai, o dažniausiai vaikų aplinkoje sutinkami elektroniniai daiktai yra žaislai bei buitiniai prietaisai. Anketinės apklausos metodu buvo atliktas tyrimas, kurio tikslas - ištirti ko ir kaip pedagogai moko ketvirtų lavinamųjų klasių mokinius ugdydami jų elektronikos pradmenų gebėjimus. Parengtos darbų programos plėtotei rekomendacinės elektronikos pradmenų ugdymo temos, pravestas eksperimentinis mokymas, įvertinti mokinių gebėjimai tinkamai eksploatuoti elektronikos prietaisus iki eksperimentinio mokymo ir po jo. Tyrime dalyvavo 30 specialiosios mokyklos žemesniųjų lavinamųjų klasių mokinių technologijų mokytojų ir 50 ketvirtų lavinamųjų klasių mokinių. Empirinėje dalyje nagrinėjamas mokytojų suvokimas apie lavinamųjų klasių mokinių gebėjimą tinkamai eksploatuoti elektronikos prietaisus, nustatomi trys mokinių gebėjimų lygiai: gebančių naudoti elektronikos prietaisus savarankiškai, gebančių naudoti su pagalba ir negebančių naudoti. Nustatomi gebėjimų skirtumai tarp berniukų ir mergaičių. Svarbiausios empirinio tyrimo išvados: 1. Pedagogai nurodo ugdantys mokinių... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / Analysis of scientific literature reveals that scientists actively discuss issues, regarding what electronic means and devices should children be familiar with, teach how to use them, so that there would be optimal possibilities for their adaptation in society. This motivates to change task program for schoolchildren with extensive and extremely extensive educational needs of fourth grade by including topics, regarding formation of this skills in this field. It is possible to hypothesize that ability to safely behave with electronic toys and house appliances could increase children motivation to play social roles’ games and the suggested topics for development of a program, regarding involvement of basics of electronics into the program, will not only meet children needs, wishes and interests, but will also allow for adequate communication with social environment. Research participants constituted of 30 crafts teachers of lower training grades in special schools and 50 schoolchildren with extensive and extremely extensive educational needs in specials schools. Most significant conclusions from empirical research are: ● Data from teachers’ questionnaire reveal that all of them follow the task program prepared by Kaukenaite for children with extensive and extremely extensive educational needs and two thirds of respondents indicate that they introduce these students to electronic devices and methods, even though these topics are not included into the program. ● Research on... [to full text]

Magistro baigiamajame darbe išanalizuoti ir įvertinti specialiųjų ugdymosi poreikių mokinių ugdymo bendrojo ugdymo mokyklose pagrindiniai aspektai, jų teises ir pareigas reglamentuojantys dokumentai, atskleista teisinio ugdymo svarba specialiųjų ugdymosi poreikių mokiniams, išsiaiškintos teisinio ugdymo galimybės specialiųjų ugdymosi poreikių turintiems mokiniams bendrojo ugdymo mokykloje. Pirmoje darbo dalyje teoriniu aspektu nagrinėjama specialiųjų ugdymosi poreikių samprata, minėtų mokinių ugdymas inkliuzijos sąlygomis bendrojo ugdymo mokykloje, jų teises ir pareigas reglamentuojantys dokumentai, bei teisinis ugdymas bendrojo ugdymo mokykloje. Antroje darbo dalyje praktiškai nagrinėjama esama specialiųjų ugdymosi poreikių turinčių mokinių teisinio ugdymo situacija bendrojo ugdymo mokykloje, analizuojami tyrimo rezultatai, pateikiamos išvados. / This Master's Thesis is to analyse and evaluate the main aspects of education of students with special educational needs (SEN) in the schools of General Education, the regulations of their rights and duties, to reveal the importance of legal education for SEN students, to explain the possibilities of legal education for SEN students in the schools of General Education. The first part examines the theoretical aspects of the concept of special education needs, the education of SEN students under the conditions of inclusion, the regulations of their rights and duties as well as legal educating in the schools of General Education. The second part practically examines the current situation of legal education of SEN students in the schools of General Education, analyses the results and presents the conclusions.

Bakalauro darbe analizuojama praktinių ir papildomų užduočių (mokymas sverti, matuoti) įtaka vidutinių specialiųjų ugdymosi poreikių turinčių mokinių gebėjimams ir įgūdžiams atliekant veiksmus su matiniais skaičiais ugdyti. Lyginama, kaip mokiniams sekėsi atlikti užduotis su matiniais skaičiais, pateiktas raštu ir atliekant specialias pratybas. Suformuluota hipotezė, kad praktinių užduočių ir specialių pratybų taikymas matematikos ugdymo procese padeda vidutinių specialiųjų ugdymosi poreikių turintiems mokiniams geriau įsisavinti mokomąją medžiagą apie matus ir matinius skaičius, formuoti teisingus įgūdžius atliekant veiksmus su matiniais skaičiais. Tyrime dalyvavo 6 Šiaulių miesto Specialiojo ugdymo centro XI klasės vidutinių specialiųjų ugdymosi poreikių turintys mokiniai, kurie ugdomi pagal adaptuotą matematikos mokymo programą. Tyrimas atliktas nestandartizuoto testo raštu metodu, pokalbio, kokybinio duomenų analizės metodu. Tyrimo pradžioje mokiniai testo užduočių nesugebėjo atlikti savarankiškai, todėl iš pradžių buvo pasiūlyta atlikti praktines užduotis. Specialios pratybos (svėrimo, matavimo) padėjo ugdytiniams savarankiškai atlikti užduotis. Atlikdami kiekvieną testo užduotį mokiniai prisimindavo praktinių užduočių atlikimą ir remdamiesi įgytomis žiniomis bandė atlikti testo užduotis raštu. Pokalbio ir pratybų metu mokiniai gebėjo atlikti nesudėtingus veiksmus su matiniais skaičiais, suvokė, kokiu būdu ir kaip reikia matuoti bei sverti daiktus. Tačiau mokinių... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / In the bachelor‘s final work there are researched the influence of practical tasks (teaching to weight, measure) for educating abilities and skills in performing actions with flat numbers of pupils with medial special educational needs. There is compared how pupils can to perform tasks with flat numbers in writing and in special practice. There was formulated the hypothesis that using practical tasks in the mathematics education process help pupils with medial special educational needs to master schoolwork about measurements and flat numbers and to form skills in performing actions with flat numbers. Six pupils of eleventh class with medial special educational needs which are educated according to the adapted mathematics educational program from Šiauliai Special Education Centre took part in the research. Doing this research there were used nonstandard test (in written), conversation, quality data analysis and practical methods (practice). At the beginning of the research pupils couldn’t carry out tasks independently therefore they were proposed to fulfill practical tasks at the first. Special practice tasks (weighting, measuring) helped pupils to perform tasks independently. Caring out each task of the test pupils remembered practical tasks fulfilling and on the basis of their acquired knowledge tried to perform writing tasks. During the conversation and practice pupils could to fulfill actions with flat numbers and recognized how to measure and weight things. However... [to full text]

Bakalauro darbe analizuojami didelių ir labai didelių specialiųjų ugdymosi poreikių turinčių mokinių bendravimo ir kalbos ypatumai, pedagoginė patirtis ugdant lavinamųjų klasių mokinių bendravimą ir kalbą bei taikant augmentinę bei alternatyviąją komunikaciją. Suformuluota hipotezė, kad dauguma didelių ir labai didelių specialiųjų ugdymosi poreikių turinčių mokinių turi nors minimalius bendravimo ir kalbos gebėjimus. Hipotezė pasitvirtino. Tyrime dalyvavo po 20 vidutiniškai ir žymiai sutrikusio intelekto mokinių (bendravimui ir kalbai įvertinti) bei 26 juos ugdantys pedagogai (mokytojai, auklėtojai, logopedai). Anketinės apklausos metodu atliktas tyrimas, kuriuo siekta nustatyti didelių ir labai didelių specialiųjų ugdymosi poreikių turinčių mokinių kalbos ir bendravimo lygmenį bei apibendrinti pedagoginę šių mokinių bendravimo ir kalbos ugdymo patirtį. Paaiškėjo, jog daugumos didelių ir labai didelių specialiųjų ugdymosi poreikių turinčių mokinių kalbos ir komunikacijos sistema turi žymių trūkumų, o jos ugdymui pedagogai derina įvairius ugdymo metodus ir priemones. Dominuojantys didelių ir labai didelių specialiųjų ugdymosi poreikių turinčių mokinių bendravimo gebėjimai yra žemo lygio, tačiau dauguma šių mokinių turi bent menką poreikį bendrauti. Dauguma vidutiniškai ir žymiai sutrikusio intelekto mokinių kalba neaiškiai ir sunkiai suprantamai bei patiria didelių sunkumų norėdami išreikšti save per kalbą. Dalis vaikų kalba nebendrauja, kai kurie nereaguoja į beveik jokius... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / The Bachelor’s work analyzes the peculiarities of communication and language of the students having big and very great special educational needs, pedagogic experience in educating the communication and language of the students of the educable classes and in applying augmentative and alternative communication. The hypothesis was formulated that most students having big and very great special educational needs have at least minimal communicative and linguistic skills. The hypothesis was proved. 20 students of moderately and considerably disordered intellect participated in the study (for assessment of communication and language) as well as 26 pedagogues educating them (teachers, educators, speech therapists). The study was accomplished via the questionnaire method which aimed to determine the level of language and communication of the students having big and very great special educational needs, and to summarize the pedagogical experience in educating the communication and language of these students. It emerged that the system of the language and communication of most students having big and very great special educational needs has significant drawbacks, and for its development, pedagogues combine various educational methods and means. Predominant communicative skills of the students having big and very great special educational needs are of low level, but most of these students have at least slight need of communication. Most students of moderately and significantly... [to full text]

The aim of this thesis was to describe teenage girls’ experiences and perceptions of participation and influence during learning processes. The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and the view that children are social actors with their own agency were central to the study. The girls, who were 13 years old when the study began, and 16 when it ended, were interviewed once per semester for three years. Classroom observations formed the basis of the interviews, which provided insight into the learning environment and its working methods. These, in turn, were discussed during the interviews. Nine girls were selected through the IEPs that the school had established for them. They attended regular classes for most of the school day, but received at least one session of special education in smaller groups each week. Their special needs were due to reading and writing difficulties. All of them received special support in English, while seven of the girls also received special support in mathematics. The girls described current events in their life, regarding both school and their spare time, as well as their thoughts about the future, and how efforts to accommodate their special educational needs have affected their schooling. In addition to the girls’ narratives, the IEPs and grades provided the school’s narrative about the girls. The theoretical basis of the thesis comprises cultural-historical ideas of teaching and learning, and the importance of relationships to group-based learning. Descriptive qualitative analyses were based on the teenage girls’ narratives and resulted in five themes; a sixth theme discussed the school’s assessment of the girls through the IEPs and their grades from lower secondary school. Feeling included or not in the group was the overarching theme of all the stories, which involved the girls’ perceptions of how they were treated by the people around them. The results indicate that the girls needed to have instructions repeated to them. There was also a need for continuous encouragement and affirmation in order for them to dare to take on assignments. When it came to collaborative learning together with classmates, the girls preferred to hide their perceived weaknesses, which only made them more dependent on the teacher’s aid. In addition, the girls felt that the teachers were unhappy with the way they handled their school work, and felt overlooked rather than “seen”. In both the stories and the IEPs, concentration difficulties were highlighted as a consistent problem. The analyses show that it is not possible to speak of concentration difficulties without further specification. Since the girls also explained that they were able to maintain concentration, it is necessary to identify which conditions allow pupils to maintain their skills, and when these skills are lost. One finding was that experiences of playing sports created unexpected development opportunities for performing under pressure, even in test situations. According to the girls, visual strengths could compensate for difficulties remembering comprehensive information. The teaching provided opportunities to demonstrate an understanding of facts through visual expression, but creative elements were not included in graded assessments. The study shows that the girls’ leisure-time experiences created opportunities for generalisation regarding learning strategies in school situations.

Bakalauro darbe analizuojami mokinių, turinčių specifinių mokymosi sutrikimų, gebėjimas spręsti ekonominio pobūdžio matematinius uždavinius. Teorinėje darbo dalyje pabrėžiama, kad vienas iš veiksmingiausių ekonominio pobūdžio matematinio raštingumo ugdymo aspektų – mokymas spręsti gyvenimiško turinio tekstinius uždavinius, kuriuose vyrauja veiksmai su procentais. Empiriniu tyrimu siekiama įvertinti dešimtos klasės mokinių, turinčių specifinių mokymosi sutrikimų, gebėjimą spręsti ekonominio pobūdžio matematinius uždavinius. Tyrimui atlikti naudojama anketa/kontrolinis testas. Kiekybiniame tyrime (anketinėje apklausoje) dalyvavo 34 Panevėžio bendrojo ugdymo mokyklose dešimtose klasėse besimokantys šešiolikos-septyniolikos metų mokiniai, turintys specifinių mokymosi sutrikimų. Visiems mokiniams nustatyti nedideli specialieji ugdymosi poreikiai. Tyrimu nustatyta, kad geriausiai mokiniams sekėsi atlikti atlyginimo ir atskaitymo, asmens ir šeimos pajamų, išlaidų, santaupų bei praktines biudžeto planavimo bei skaičiavimo užduotis. Šias užduotis mokiniai atliko gana produktyviai ir pakankamai savarankiškai. Daugiausia keblumų iškilo skaičiuojant paprastųjų palūkanų normą, sudėtines palūkanas, pirkimo išsimokėtinai, sudėtinių procentų skaičiavimo uždavinius. Didžiajai daliai prireikė skirtingo intensyvumo mokytojo pagalbos, o nemaža dalis mokinių užduočių net ir po suteiktos pagalbos nesugebėjo atlikti. Tyrimo metu išryškėjo, kad pasiekę dviejų metų laikotarpiui nurodytus... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / Pupils who have specific learning disorders and their ability to solve Mathematics Tasks of Economic nature is analyzed in this bachelor‘s thesis. The theoretical part of the final work emphasizes that one of the most effective economic nature mathematical literacy education‘s aspect is a teaching how to solve the real-life content‘s text tasks in which dominate operations with percentages. It is seeked to evaluate students of the tenth grades who have specific learning disorders to solve mathematics tasks of economic nature by empirical research. Questionnaire and control test are used to accomplish the research. In the quantitative investigation (questionnaire interrogation) participated 34 pupils of sixteen-seventeen years of age who are studying in the tenth forms at Panevėžys co- educational schools and have specific learning disorders. There are determined minor special educational needs for all these students. According to research it‘s determined that the most successful tasks for students were: remuneration and deduction, person and family proceeds, expenditure, savings, practical budget planning and counting. The students accomplished these tasks sufficiently productive and by one selves. The biggest quandaries came to the front, when schoolchildren had to count the simple interest rate, compound interest, hire purchase composite percent tasks. The most students needed the different intensity of the teacher‘s help, unfortunately a considerable part of the students... [to full text]

During the past decade, South Africa has become the country with the highest number of HIV/AIDS infections in the world. In the wake of the widely spread HIV/AIDS epidemic in South Africa, hundreds of thousands of children are left parentless. Since limited research exists on the psycho-educational needs of children orphaned by AIDS in South Africa, the focus of this study was on their psycho-educational development. A literature study was conducted to investigate the HIV/AIDS epidemic in South Africa and its consequences for the psycho-educational development of AIDS orphans. A qualitative investigation was undertaken and interviews were conducted with caregivers of AIDS orphans at two care centres in rural KwaZulu-Natal. The aim of the investigation was to identify the psycho-educational needs of AIDS orphans as perceived by their caregivers. Moreover, the investigation also aimed at identifying factors that impede the psycho-educational development of AIDS orphans, and to determine the extent to which these day care centres meet the psycho-educational needs of these orphans. The following psycho-educational needs of AIDS orphans emerged from the investigation: - the need to socialise and communicate - the need to cope with parental death - the need for acceptance - the need for security and care - the need for love and belonging - the need to deal with negative emotions Physical and material needs were added to the above needs, since these were frequently mentioned during the course of the interviews. Factors that seriously impeded the psycho-educational development of AIDS orphans were abuse and neglect. The investigation also revealed that the care centres were to a large extent able to meet a broad spectrum of these orphans’ psycho-educational needs, especially at the care centre where the AIDS orphans were able to sleep over and received the full-time attention caregivers. Since the extended family system can no longer fully carry the burden of hundreds of thousands of AIDS orphans in South Africa, care centres situated in the affected communities can offer a viable alternative to traditional models of care. The study emphasised the need for further research on the needs of AIDS orphans as well as increased support of AIDS orphans on local, provincial and national levels. / MEd (Learner support), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012

During the past decade, South Africa has become the country with the highest number of HIV/AIDS infections in the world. In the wake of the widely spread HIV/AIDS epidemic in South Africa, hundreds of thousands of children are left parentless. Since limited research exists on the psycho-educational needs of children orphaned by AIDS in South Africa, the focus of this study was on their psycho-educational development. A literature study was conducted to investigate the HIV/AIDS epidemic in South Africa and its consequences for the psycho-educational development of AIDS orphans. A qualitative investigation was undertaken and interviews were conducted with caregivers of AIDS orphans at two care centres in rural KwaZulu-Natal. The aim of the investigation was to identify the psycho-educational needs of AIDS orphans as perceived by their caregivers. Moreover, the investigation also aimed at identifying factors that impede the psycho-educational development of AIDS orphans, and to determine the extent to which these day care centres meet the psycho-educational needs of these orphans. The following psycho-educational needs of AIDS orphans emerged from the investigation: - the need to socialise and communicate - the need to cope with parental death - the need for acceptance - the need for security and care - the need for love and belonging - the need to deal with negative emotions Physical and material needs were added to the above needs, since these were frequently mentioned during the course of the interviews. Factors that seriously impeded the psycho-educational development of AIDS orphans were abuse and neglect. The investigation also revealed that the care centres were to a large extent able to meet a broad spectrum of these orphans’ psycho-educational needs, especially at the care centre where the AIDS orphans were able to sleep over and received the full-time attention caregivers. Since the extended family system can no longer fully carry the burden of hundreds of thousands of AIDS orphans in South Africa, care centres situated in the affected communities can offer a viable alternative to traditional models of care. The study emphasised the need for further research on the needs of AIDS orphans as well as increased support of AIDS orphans on local, provincial and national levels. / MEd (Learner support), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012

XX a. viduryje Vakarų Europoje ir Šiaurės Amerikoje prasidėję socialiniai pokyčiai ir naujos neįgaliųjų ugdymo ir socialinės integracijos teorijos turėjo įtakos ir kuriamai Lietuvos švietimo koncepcijai. Lietuvos švietimo politika grindžiama Vakarų Europos priimtais humaniškumo, demokratiškumo principais, normalizacijos, integracijos idėjomis. R. Rose (2003) teigimu, viso pasaulio vyriausybės, pasirašydamos Salamankoje priimtus dokumentus: ataskaitą ir veiksmų planą specialiųjų poreikių vaikų integracijai vystyti (UNESKO 1994), pasižadėjo stengtis sukurti kuo nešališkesnę švietimo sistemą, apimančią geresnį moksleivių, dar dažnai nustumiamų į šalį, ugdymą. Nors ir buvo padaryti dideli žingsniai vaikų iškritimui iš mokyklos įveikti, dar vis pasitaiko atvejų, kai didelis skaičius vaikų pasijunta už tinkamo (atitinkančio vaiko gebėjimus) ugdymo ribų. Įvairūs tyrimai rodo, kad nesėkmingo mokymosi mastai įvairiose švietimo sistemose, tame tarpe ir Lietuvoje, yra ryškūs (Barkauskaitė M, 2003). Aktualiausia švietimo ir ugdymo problema ES ir Lietuvoje įvardijamas kokybiškas visų švietimas. Kiekvieno vaiko „iškritimas” iš mokyklos yra netektis valstybei, reikalaujanti papildomų investicijų. Sprendžiant šį uždavinį, specialiųjų ugdymo(si) poreikių (SUP) savalaikiškas identifikavimas tampa itin aktualus, nes šalina nesėkmingo mokymosi, neigiamai veikiančio vaiko asmenybę, priežastis, sudaro galimybes mokytis pagal individualius gebėjimus, garantuoja „nubyrėjimo” iš mokyklos prevenciją... [to full text] / The subject of master’s work – Identification of special (self)-educational needs: the aspect of special development commission’s activity. The subject is relevant because the different researches show that the scale of unsuccessful learning in different educational systems including Lithuania is telling. Dealing with educational today’s problems the well-timed identification of special (self)-educational needs (SEN) is becoming especially talking point because it eliminates the reasons of unlucky learning, which negatively affects to the child’s personality, helps to solve the most actual educational problem in EU and Lithuania – the qualitative development of all schoolchildren and guarantees the prevention of dropping out of schools. The schools must be ready to envisage the special needs of pupils, to consider the individual abilities of children and organize the service of social, psychological, special pedagogical help. The purpose of research – to show the situation (problems, reasons) of identification of special (self)-educational needs of schoolchildren in the commissions of special development and formulate the recommendations for improving this work. The purpose is realized by these goals: a) to discover the survey of development of institutions that identify SEN and the conception of special development commission (SDC), b) to discuss the conception of special (self)-educational needs and their identification as well as the matter of activity, c) to estimate... [to full text]