Les Peptide Nucleic Acids (PNA) sont des oligonucléotides antisens analogues de l’ADN, dont le squelette phosphodiester a été remplacé par un squelette pseudo-peptidique d’unités 2-aminoéthylglycine, sur lequel sont greffées des bases azotées. Des PNA dirigés contre les ARN messagers peuvent inhiber la traduction in vitro et dans les cellules humaines. Lorsqu’ils sont dirigés contre la partie codante du transcrit, des PNA polypyrimidiques peuvent bloquer physiquement l’élongation de la traduction en stoppant la machinerie ribosomale. Le transcrit n’est pas dégradé et une protéine tronquée est générée in vitro. Dans le cas de protéines dont la surexpression conduit à des pathologies, des protéines tronquées inactives peuvent jouer un rôle de dominant négatif dans les cellules. Des protéines tronquées de l’Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 (IGF1R), récepteur cellulaire surexprimé dans de nombreux cancers, inhibent la tumorigénèse et la résistance à l’apoptose de cellules cancéreuses. La pénétration cellulaire des PNA est la principale limite à leur utilisation in vivo et il est nécessaire de développer des transporteurs efficaces pour ces oligonucléotides neutres. Les Cell Penetrating Peptides (CPP) sont des peptides naturels ou synthétiques, qui peuvent être conjugués à différentes molécules pour promouvoir leur internalisation cellulaire. Les objectifs de ce travail de thèse étaient de comprendre les critères requis pour l’arrêt de l’élongation de la traduction par les PNA et d’étudier leur internalisation cellulaire médiée par le CPP (R/W)9. Nous avons montré qu’un couplage covalent entre ce peptide et deux PNA 13-mer permet l’internalisation des conjugués dans un système cellulaire rapporteur, conduisant à leur activité biologique en présence d’un agent lysosomotropique. Les conjugués interagissent avec les glycosaminoglycanes membranaires et sont internalisés par endocytose en moins d’une heure. De plus, les conjugués formés avec un peptide analogue comportant des lysines sont six fois moins internalisés, mettant en évidence l’importance des résidus arginines du peptide (R/W)9 pour l’interaction avec la membrane. Enfin, nous avons montré que le peptide (R/W)9 couplé à un PNA dirigé contre la séquence codante de l’IGF1R permet son internalisation dans les cellules de cancer de la prostate et que le conjugué inhibe spécifiquement l’expression de la chaîne β du récepteur. / Peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) are nucleic acid analogues in which the sugar-phosphate backbone has been replaced by a synthetic peptide backbone, usually comprised of N-(2-aminoethyl)-glycan units. PNAs targeted against mRNA can inhibit translation both in vitro and in human cells. Pyrimidine rich PNAs can physically block translation elongation at targets in the coding region of messenger RNA, giving rise to a truncated protein. Truncated proteins that lack a functional domain and can at the same time inhibit the function of the wild type protein are referred to as dominant negative. Truncated form of Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 receptor (IGF1R), protein overexpressed in numerous cancers, inhibits tumorigenesis and resistance to apoptosis of cancerous cells. One of the biggest limitations to the use of PNAs in vivo is their poor internalization. It is therefore necessary to develop efficient transporters able to enhance the cellular uptake of PNAs. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are natural or synthetic peptides that can be conjugated to different molecules in order to facilitate their cellular uptake. The objectives of this thesis were to understand the conditions required for the translation elongation arrest by PNAs and to study their cellular internalization mediated by CPP (R/W)9. We have shown that covalent coupling of two 13-mer PNAs to (R/W)9 facilitates their internalization in a reporter cell line, leading to their biological activity in the presence of a lysosomotropic agent such as chloroquine. The conjugates interact with membrane glycosaminoglycans and are internalized by endocytosis in less than one hour. Moreover, conjugates formed with an analogue peptide containing lysines in the place of arginines of (R/W)9 showed to be six time less efficiently internalized, suggesting the importance of arginine residues for the interaction of the conjugate with the membrane. We have also showed that the PNA targeted to the coding region of IGF1R coupled to (R/W)9 is efficiently internalized to prostate cancer cells where it inhibits the expression of the beta chain of the receptor.

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) has a large linear double-stranded DNA genome in an icosahedral capsid shell, a cell-derived lipid envelope and a proteinaceous tegument layer. There are over fifty viral proteins and many host proteins identified in HSV-1 virions. The final formation of mature virus particles requires the membrane wrapping of tegumented capsids in the cytoplasm, a process termed secondary envelopment. This process involves the coordination of numerous viral and cellular proteins and results in double-membrane structures with enveloped virions contained within cellular vesicles. Mature viruses are then released through the fusion of these virion-containing vesicles and plasma membranes. This thesis describes investigation into the functions of viral glycoprotein M (gM) and the cellular Endosomal Sorting Complexes Required for Transport (ESCRT) in secondary envelopment. Firstly, it has been reported that gH/L can be efficiently internalised and targeted to the TGN by the co-expression of gM in transfection assays. In order to examine the role of gM in guiding the localisation of viral proteins in infected cells, a HSV-1 gM deletion virus (∆gM), and its revertant virus were constructed. The major phenotype demonstrated was that the absence of gM caused the internalisation of cell surface gH/L to be inhibited and higher levels of gH/L to be observed on the cell surface. Further, lower levels of gH/L were detected in purified ∆gM virions, which was in agreement with the delayed entry kinetics, smaller plaque sizes and greater replication deficits at low multiplicity of infection observed in ∆gM infected cells. Over all the results presented in this thesis demonstrate that in infected cells the efficient incorporation of gH/L into virions relies on the function of gM in HSV-1. Secondly, during HSV-1 secondary envelopment the budding and scission of the viral envelope from the host membrane share topological similarities with the formation of intraluminal vesicle in multivesicular bodies, retrovirus budding, and abscission at the end of cytokinesis, processes that require the cellular ESCRT machinery. There are four multiprotein ESCRT complexes and many associated proteins involved in their regulation. It has been previously shown that the ESCRT-III complex and a functional ATPase VPS4 are required for HSV-1 secondary envelopment, but different from the strategy utilised by HIV-1, the recruitment of ESCRT during HSV-1 infection is independent of TSG101 and/or ALIX. Data presented in this thesis demonstrate that CHMP4A/B/C proteins of the ESCRT-III complex are specifically crucial for HSV-1 secondary envelopment. Simultaneous depletion of CHMP4A/B/C proteins significantly inhibited HSV-1 replication. Ultrastructure analysis revealed that there were virtually no extracellular virions in CHMP4A/B/C depleted samples while more free capsids were observed in the cytoplasm, although the nuclear capsids and primary envelopment events appeared to be normal. In order to identify interactions between HSV-1 and ESCRT proteins, 22 HSV-1 tegument proteins were cloned and tested against a panel of ESCRT and ESCRT-associated proteins in yeast two-hydrid assays. Analysis of positive hits from yeast two-hybrid interaction screens using GST pull-down, co-immunoprecipitation and protein co-localisation assays have validated interactions of pUL47 with CC2D1A/1B, CIN85, CHMP6 and ALIX, pUL46 and pUL49 with CC2D1A/1B and CIN85, and pUL16 with CC2D1A/1B. Furthermore, the newly identified ESCRT associated proteins CC2D1A and CC2D1B have been detected in purified virions. The role of the identified ESCRT proteins in HSV-1 replication has been investigated using siRNA depletion. Unfortunately siRNA depletions of the various ESCRT candidates individually or in combinations did not show any significant effect on HSV-1 replication. Overall these data suggest that unlike HIV and other retroviruses, HSV-1 has evolved multiple parallel pathways to hijack the ESCRT machinery to facilitate its replication, particularly, through the interactions that lead directly to the recruitment of CHMP4A/B/C proteins. Disruption of some of these pathways did not prevent HSV-1 replication in tissue culture, suggesting any one potential pathway is sufficient for ESCRT recruitment to sites of HSV-1 assembly.

Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is the second most common early-onset dementia. A rare mutation in CHMP2B gene was found to be associated with FTD linked to chromosome 3. Previous studies have shown that mutant CHMP2B could lead to impaired autophagy pathway and altered RNA metabolism. However, it is still unknown what genes mediate the crosstalk between different pathways affected by mutant CHMP2B. Genetic screens designed to identify genes interacting with mutant CHMP2B represents a key approach in solving the puzzle. Expression of mutant CHMP2B (CHMP2Bintron5) in Drosophila eyes leads to a neurodegenerative phenotype including melanin deposition and disrupted internal structure of ommatidia. The phenotype is easily quantified by estimating the percentage of black dots on the surface of the eyes. Using this established Drosophila model, I searched for genes encoding RNA binding proteins that genetically modify CHMP2Bintron5 toxicity. I found that partial loss of Pumilio, a translation repressor, mitigates CHMP2Bintron5 induced toxicity in the fly eyes. Western blot analysis showed that down regulation of Pumilio does not significantly decrease CHMP2Bintron5 protein level, indicating indirect regulation involved in suppression of the phenotype. The molecular targets regulated by Pumilio and the mechanism underlying CHMP2Bintron5 toxicity suppression by Pumilio down-regulation requires further investigation.

L'efficacité de la réponse antitumorale repose sur l'activité des cellules T cytotoxiques, qui peut être stimulée par des vaccins contenant des antigènes spécifiques aux tumeurs. Malgré le fait d'être les principales cellules présentatrices d'antigènes (CPA) responsables de l'activation des cellules TCD8, les cellules dendritiques (CD) ont rencontré des défis dans le développement de vaccins contre le cancer, notamment en ce qui concerne leur fabrication et efficacité. Pour combler ces problèmes, cette étude propose d’utiliser des cellules stromales mésenchymateuses (CSM) comme plateforme de vaccination alternative, en exploitant les avantages des CSMs en matière de fabrication, de sécurité et de plasticité. La plasticité remarquable des CSMs leur permet d'acquérir une capacité de présentation croisée sous des stimuli spécifiques. Étant donné que la présentation croisée est essentielle pour induire l'activation des cellules T contre les antigènes tumoraux, cette étude vise à convertir les CSMs en cellules présentatrice d‘antigènes en améliorant l'exportation des antigènes des endosomes vers le cytosol - une étape critique du processus. Dans cette démarche, nous avons examiné une librairie de molécules dérivés de l’Accum, une molécule initialement conçue pour favoriser la destruction de la membrane endosomale. Après avoir évalué leur potentiel à induire la présentation croisée, nous avons sélectionné la molécule A1 pour des investigations subséquentes. Les études mécanistiques ont démontré qu'A1 déclenchait des processus cellulaires essentiels favorisant une présentation croisée efficace, notamment une augmentation de la capture, dégradation et évasion des antigènes des endosomes ainsi que la production de d’espèces oxygénés réactifs. L'efficacité thérapeutique des CSMs reprogrammées par A1 (ARM) en tant que vaccin anticancéreux a été évaluée chez des souris ayant des tumeurs, en monothérapie et en combinaison avec l’anti-PD-1. La thérapie combinée ARM a induit une régression tumorale et a augmenté les taux de survie dans les modèles de tumeurs solides. En conclusion, cette étude présente une stratégie innovante pour transformer les CSM en cellules à présentation croisée en déclenchant l'échappement endosomal de l'antigène. Les cellules ARMs en association avec des inhibiteurs des points de contrôle immunitaire présentent un potentiel en tant que plateforme de vaccination contre les tumeurs solides. De plus, ces résultats soulignent l'importance de l'évasion des endosomes dans la présentation croisée d‘antigènes et ouvrent la voie à de nouvelles plateformes de vaccins contre le cancer. / The effectiveness of antitumoral response relies on cytotoxic T-cell activity, which can be stimulated through vaccines carrying tumor-specific antigens. Despite being the primary antigen-presenting cells (APCs) responsible for CD8 T-cell activation, dendritic cells (DCs) have encountered challenges in cancer vaccine development, particularly in manufacturing and efficiency. To address this gap, this study proposes mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) as an alternative vaccine platform, leveraging the advantages in manufacturing, safety profile, and plasticity of MSCs. The remarkable plasticity of MSCs enables them to acquire cross-presentation capacity under specific stimuli. Given that cross-presentation is pivotal for inducing T-cell activation against tumor antigens, this study aims to convert MSCs into antigen cross-presenting cells by enhancing the export of antigens from endosomes to the cytosol—a critical step in the process. In this pursuit, we screened a library of Accum and variant molecules designed to promote endosomal disruption. After evaluating their potential to induce cross-presentation, we selected the molecule A1 for further investigation. Mechanistic studies demonstrated that A1 triggers essential cellular processes supporting efficient cross-presentation, including enhanced antigen uptake, processing, endosomal escape, and reactive oxygen species production. The therapeutic efficacy of A1-reprogrammed MSCs (ARMs) as an anticancer vaccine was evaluated in tumor-bearing mice, as monotherapy and combined with anti-PD-1. In solid tumor models, ARMs combination therapy induced tumor regression and increased survival rates. In conclusion, this study presents an innovative strategy to transform MSCs into cross-presenting cells by triggering antigen endosomal escape. ARM cells in combination with immune checkpoint inhibitors hold potential as a vaccination platform against solid tumors. These findings underscore the importance of endosomal escape on antigen cross-presentation and pave the way for new cancer vaccine platforms.

L'un des principaux défis de la nanomédecine est la capacité à cibler sélectivement les sites pathologiques. Le ciblage repose généralement sur la réponse sélective à une ou certaines caractéristiques des tissus ciblés (stimuli endogènes). Cette thèse s’intéresse à l’étude de la réponse sélective des nanoparticules fonctionnelles à deux stimuli endogènes bien caractérisés : la densité surfacique élevée d’un récepteur biologique sur une membrane cellulaire et le milieu acide des endosomes. Dans un premier temps, nous démontrons que les nanoparticules peuvent s’adsorber sélectivement sur les surfaces présentant une densité de récepteurs supérieure à un certain seuil, en fonctionnalisant leur surface avec une monocouche de polymères bimodaux (un poly (éthylène glycol) non-fonctionnel et un PEG portant un ligand). Les paramètres de conception de la monocouche comme la longueur relative des chaînes, la densité surfacique globale de la monocouche ou la densité surfacique de ligands peuvent être modulées pour améliorer la sélectivité des nanoparticules. Dans un second temps, nous rapportons des nanoparticules lipidiques capables de déstabiliser des membranes lipidiques à pH acide grâce à un lipide bascule pH-sensible. Nous montrons que le changement de conformation du lipide bascule augmente son aire interfaciale et provoque une dynamique membranaire qui peut se traduire macroscopiquement par des changements morphologiques et relargage du contenu des nanoparticules lipidiques. En améliorant le ciblage sélectif pour les membranes cellulaires, d’une part, et la livraison intracellulaire, d’autre part, ce travail servira à concevoir des nanoparticules multifonctionnelles sélectives et ciblées, pour une meilleure efficacité de vectorisation de médicaments ou d’acides nucléiques. / One of the main challenges of nanomedicine is the ability to selectively target disease sites. Targeting efficiency is generally based on a selective response to characteristics (endogenous stimuli) of the targeted tissues. This thesis focuses on the selective response of functional nanoparticles to two endogenous stimuli: the cell surface over-expressing a specific receptor and the acid medium of endosome. First, we report that nanoparticles surface-functionalized with a bimodal monolayer of polymers containing nonfunctional polyethylene glycol (1) and ligand-functionalized PEG exhibit selective adsorption to receptor surface with a surface density of receptor above a certain threshold. We show that design parameters of the bimodal monolayer, including the relative length of two chains, the total surface density of the monolayer or the surface density of ligand can be modulated to enhance the selectivity of the nanoparticle adsorption. Secondly, we report lipid nanoparticles that induce membrane destabilization under acidic condition thanks to a pH-switchable lipid. We show that the conformational change of the pH-switchable lipid increases the area occupied at the interface, causing membrane dynamics phenomena, that result in morphological changes and release of the cargo from lipid nanoparticles. By improving the ability of nanoparticles to selectively target cell surfaces and escape endosomal membrane, the selective responses of functional nanoparticles reported in this thesis will potentially serve to design multifunctional nanoparticles for selective targeting and efficient delivery of drugs and genetic materials.

L’accumulation cérébrale progressive de peptides amyloïdes générés à partir du clivage du précurseur du peptide amyloïde (APP) par les sécrétases est un mécanisme central de la maladie d’Alzheimer. C’est pourquoi, améliorer la compréhension de la régulation et de l’homéostasie du métabolisme de l’APP est devenu primordial. Partant de ce constat, nous avons supposé qu’une partie de la réponse pourrait être apportée par la caractérisation de nouveaux acteurs du métabolisme de l’APP. De part leurs rôles cruciaux dans le cerveau (développement, plasticité et réparations) et dans le métabolisme de l’APP (α-sécrétases), les ADAMs sont des protéines d’intérêt dont certaines fonctions ou rôles restent à déterminer. Précédemment, par une approche transcriptomique ciblant la famille des ADAMs dans des cerveaux de patients et de contrôles, ADAM30 a été retrouvée sous-exprimée dans le cerveau des patients atteints de la pathologie. Dans deux modèles cellulaires nous avions constaté que la sous-expression d’ADAM30 entraînait une augmentation de tous les produits du métabolisme de l’APP comme chez les patients. Le résultat opposé a été obtenu lors de la sur-expression d’ADAM30 dans ces cellules. Pour tenter de répliquer ces résultats dans un modèle plus proche de la physiopathologie humaine, nous avons développé un modèle de souris triples transgéniques surexprimant l’APPSweInd et ADAM30 de manière conditionnelle. Dans ce modèle nous avons observé et mesuré une diminution des dépôts amyloïdes dans le cerveau des souris exprimant ADAM30. Dans un second temps puisqu’il avait été montré au laboratoire qu’ADAM30 ne module pas l’activité des sécrétases et ne clive pas directement l’APP, nous avons cherché à déterminer les substrats d’ADAM30 dans le cadre du métabolisme de l’APP. Par une approche systématique nous avons pu déterminer que la Cathepsine D (CTSD) et l’Insuline Receptor Substrat 4 (IRS4) sont deux substrats potentiels d’ADAM30. Dans nos modèles cellulaires et de souris, nous avons pu constater qu’ADAM30 est capable de cliver et d’activer la CTSD. L’activité de la CTSD semble nécessaire pour l’action d’ADAM30 sur le métabolisme de l’APP. Nous avons pu déterminer que l’action spécifique d’ADAM30 pour la CTSD est dépendante de la séquence d’adressage au lysosome située dans l’extrémité C-terminale de l’APP. Comme la CTSD est une protéine Lysosomale, ADAM30 pourrait favoriser spécifiquement l’activation de la CTSD augmentant ainsi la dégradation de l’APP au sein de la voie endosome/lysosome. Ce mécanisme limiterait l’entrée de l’APP dans son métabolisme et donc la production de peptides amyloïdes. Afin de mieux comprendre la spécificité d’action d’ADAM30 pour la CTSD et l’APP, nous avons commencé à travailler sur le rôle potentiel d’IRS4 et la relation entre la voie de signalisation de l’Insuline et le métabolisme de l’APP. Nos travaux nous ont donc permis de mettre en évidence un nouvel acteur du métabolisme de l’APP, ADAM30, intervenant dans la régulation et la dégradation de ce dernier et ainsi d’améliorer notre compréhension des mécanismes de régulations fins impliqués dans le processus physiopathologique de la maladie d’Alzheimer. / Progressive intra-cerebral accumulation of amyloid peptides formed after sequential cleavage of the amyloid peptide precursor (APP) by secretases , is a central mecanism for Alzheimer’s disease. Therefore, a better understanding of APP regulation and homeostasy is now crucial. With this background, we postulate that the characterization of new actors in the APP metabolism could provide a more subtle understanding of this APP metabolism and trafficking. From their obvious implication in brain (development, plasticity and repair) and in APP metabolism (α-secretases), ADAMs (A Disintegrin And Metalloprotease) are an important protein proteins family which still have some undetermined function or role. Previously, a transcriptomic approach targeting ADAMs family bas been done at the laboratory on Alzheimer’s patient or control brains and found ADAM30 as under-expressed in Alzheimer’s patient brains. On cellular models, we confirmed that ADAM30 under-expression was associate with an increase in production/secretion of all the APP metabolim byproducts. Opposite results were found with ADAM30 over-expression. To replicate those results in another model closest to human pathophysiology, we have developed a triple transgenic mice model over-expressing APPSweInd and conditionally over-expressing ADAM30. In this model, we have observed and measured a decrease in amyloid deposits in mice brains over-expressing ADAM30. Secondly, because ADAM30 did not modulate secretase activities and did not cleave APP directly, we decided to determine ADAM30 substrats in the APP metabolism context. With a systematic approach, we have determined that Cathepsin D (CTSD) and Insulin Receptor Substrat 4 (IRS4) are two ADAM30 potential substrats. In our cellular models, we have found that ADAM30 is able to cleave and activate CTSD. This CTSD activity is required for ADAM30 action on APP metabolism. We have determined that ADAM30 specific action for CTSD is dependent on lysosome adressing sequence localised in APP C-terminal part. CTSD is a lysosomal protein and so ADAM30 would make CTSD specific activation easier. This mecanism would be able to increase APP degradation in endosome/lysosome pathway and reduce APP entry in its metabolism. To better understand ADAM30 specific action on CTSD and APP, we begin to investigate the potential role of IRS4 and the relation between insulin signaling pathway ans APP metabolism. Combined together, those data suggest that ADAM30 is a new APP metabolism actor, involved in an early APP regulation and degradation pathway dependent on lysosome activation. This study participate in a better understanding of the fine mecanism regulations involved in Alzheimer’s disease pathophysiological process.

Tissue homeostasis in the adult Drosophila melanogaster intestine is maintained by controlling the proper balance of stem cell self-renewal and differentiation. In the adult fly midgut, intestinal stem cells (ISCs) are the only dividing cells and their identity maintenance is crucial to the proper functioning of the fly gut. Various pathways such as Notch, JAK-STAT and Wingless are known to regulate ISC division and differentiation. Here I used a pathogen feeding model to study conditions that accelerate ISC division and guide intestinal cell differentiation favoring enterocyte development. I also examined the role of Tumor Suppressor Gene 101 (TSG101) in ISC maintenance and function. TSG101, a part of the ESCRT1 complex. It is known to stimulate the Notch pathway and to play a role in endocytic trafficking. TSG101 loss-of-function mutants show developmental defects in various fly and mammalian tissues. The protein also plays a role in virus abscission from host cells. In my experiments I have observed that TSG101 is required for ISC maintenance. TSG101 knockdown and loss of function mutant clones have defects in ISC proliferation that hinder the normal intestinal responses to oral pathogen ingestion. Based on these results I conclude that TSG101 is needed in the adult fly intestine for proper ISC maintenance and function, thereby being an important player in intestinal homeostasis.

Replication of HIV-1 requires the assembly and release of mature and infectious viral particles. In order to accomplish this goal, HIV-1 has evolved multiple methods to interact with the host cell. HIV-1 recruits the host cell ESCRT machinery to facilitate the release of nascent viral particles from the host cell membrane. Recruitment of these cellular factors is dependent on the presence of short motifs in Gag referred to as Late-domains. Deletion or mutation of these domains results in substantial decrease in the release of infectious virions. However, previously published work has indicated that over-expression of the E3 ubiquitin ligase, NEDD4.2s is able to robustly rescue release of otherwise budding-defective HIV-1 particles. This rescue is specific to the NEDD4.2s isoform as related E3 ubiquitin ligases display no ability to rescue particle release. In addition, rescue of particle release is dependent on the presence of the partial C2 domain and a catalytically active HECT domain of NEDD4.2s. Here I provide evidence supporting the hypothesis that a partial C2 domain of NEDD4.2s constitutes a Gag interacting module capable of targeting the HECT domains of other E3 ubiquitin ligases to HIV-1 Gag. Also, by generating chimeras between HECT domains shown to form poly-ubiquitin chains linked through either K48 or K63 of ubiquitin, I demonstrate that the ability of NEDD4.2s to catalyze the formation of K63-polyubiquitin chains is required for its stimulation of HIV-1 L-domain mutant particle release. In addition, I present findings from on-going research into the role of the HIV-1 accessory protein Nef during viral replication using the culture T-cell line, MOLT3. My current findings indicate that downregulation of CD4 from the host cell membrane does not solely account for the dramatic dependence of HIV-1 replication on Nef expression in this system. In addition, I present evidence indicating that Nef proteins from diverse HIV-1 Groups and strains are capable of enhancing HIV-1 replication in this system. Analysis of a range of mutations in Nef known to impact interaction with cellular proteins suggest that the observed replication enhancement requires Nef targeting to the host cell membrane and may also require the ability to interact with select Src-kinases. Lastly, we find that the ability of Nef to enhance replication in this system is separate from any increase in viral particle infectivity, in agreement with current literature.

Dans l'introduction, diverses voies de trafic intracellulaire et endocytose seront discutées. Je familiarise le lecteur avec des protéines inactivant les ribosomes, en mettant l'accent sur la structure, l'endocytose, et le trafic intracellulaire de la toxine bactérienne Shiga toxin (STX). STx et la ricine suivent la voie rétrograde pour exercer leur effet toxique sur les cellules. Ils sont respectivement, une menace maladie infectieuse pour la santé humaine et des outils potentiels pour le bioterrorisme pour lequel aucun antidote n’existe actuellement. D'un criblage à haut débit, Retro-1 et Retro-2 avaient déjà été identifiés comme de puissants inhibiteurs de la voie rétrograde à l'interface des endosomes précoces-TGN, et Retro-2 a été démontré pour protéger les souris contre la ricine. Parmi les facteurs de trafic analysés, seule la protéine SNARE syntaxine-5 a été ré- localisée dans les cellules traitées avec Rétro - 2. / In the introduction, various endocytic and intracellular trafficking pathways will be discussed. I acquaint the reader with ribosome-inactivating proteins, with emphasis on the structure, endocytosis, and intracellular trafficking of the bacterial toxin Shiga toxin (STx). STx and ricin follow the retrograde route to exert their toxic effect on cells. They are respectively, an infectious disease threat to human health and potential tools for bioterrorism for which no antidote currently exists. From a high throughput screening, Retro-1 and Retro-2 had previously been identified as potent inhibitors of the retrograde route at the early endosomes-TGN interface, and Retro-2 was demonstrated to protect mice against ricin. Of the trafficking factors analyzed, only the SNARE protein syntaxin-5 was re-localized in Retro-2 treated cells. Yet, whether syntaxin-5 is the direct target of Retro-2 and whether its re-localization was directly responsible for retrograde transport inhibition remained to be established.

O Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana (HIV) é o agente etiológico da Síndrome da Imunodeficiência Adquirida (AIDS). A AIDS é uma doença de distribuição mundial, e estima-se que existam atualmente pelo menos 36,9 milhões de pessoas infectadas com o vírus. Durante o seu ciclo replicativo, o HIV promove diversas alterações na fisiologia da célula hospedeira a fim de promover sua sobrevivência e potencializar a replicação. A rápida progressão da infecção pelo HIV-1 em humanos e em modelos animais está intimamente ligada à função da proteína acessória Nef. Dentre as diversas ações de Nef está a regulação negativa de proteínas importantes na resposta imunológica, como o receptor CD4. Sabe-se que esta ação resulta da indução da degradação de CD4 em lisossomos, mas os mecanismos moleculares envolvidos ainda são totalmente elucidados. Nef forma um complexo tripartite com a cauda citosólica de CD4 e a proteína adaptadora 2 (AP-2), em vesículas revestidas por clatrina nascentes, induzindo a internalização e degradação lisossomal de CD4. Pesquisas anteriores demonstraram que o direcionamento de CD4 aos lisossomos por Nef envolve a entrada do receptor na via dos corpos multivesiculares (MVBs), por um mecanismo atípico, pois, embora não necessite da ubiquitinação de carga, depende da ação de proteínas que compõem os ESCRTs (Endosomal Sorting Complexes Required for Transport) e da ação de Alix, uma proteína acessória da maquinaria ESCRT. Já foi reportado que Nef interage com subunidades dos complexos AP-1, AP-2, AP-3 e Nef não parece interagir com subunidades de AP-4 e AP-5. Entretanto, o papel da interação de Nef com AP-1 e AP-3 na regulação negativa de CD4 ainda não está totalmente elucidado. Ademais, AP-1, AP-2 e AP-3 são potencialmente heterogêneos devido à existência de isoformas múltiplas das subunidades codificadas por diferentes genes. Todavia, existem poucos estudos para demonstrar se as diferentes combinações de isoformas dos APs são formadas e se possuem propriedades funcionais distintas. O presente trabalho procurou identificar e caracterizar fatores celulares envolvidos na regulação do tráfego intracelular de proteínas no processo de regulação negativa de CD4 induzido por Nef. Mais especificamente, este estudo buscou caracterizar a participação do complexo AP-1 na modulação negativa de CD4 por Nef de HIV-1, através do estudo funcional das duas isoformas de ?-adaptina, subunidades de AP-1. Utilizando a técnica de Pull-down demonstramos que Nef é capaz de interagir com ?2. Além disso, nossos dados de Imunoblot indicaram que a proteína ?2-adaptina, e não ?1-adaptina, é necessária no processo de degradação lisossomal de CD4 por Nef e que esta participação é conservada para degradação de CD4 por Nef de diferentes cepas virais. Ademais, por citometria de fluxo, o silenciamento de ?2, e não de ?1, compromete a diminuição dos níveis de CD4 por Nef da membrana plasmática. A análise por imunofluorêsncia indireta também revelou que a diminuição dos níveis de ?2 impede a redistribuição de CD4 por Nef para regiões perinucleares, acarretando no acúmulo de CD4, retirados por Nef da membrana plasmática, em endossomos primários. A depleção de ?1A, outra subunidade de AP-1, acarretou na diminuição dos níveis celulares de ?2 e ?1, bem como, no comprometimento da eficiente degradação de CD4 por Nef. Além disso, foi possível observar que, ao perturbar a maquinaria ESCRT via super-expressão de HRS (uma subunidade do complexo ESCRT-0), ocorreu um acumulo de ?2 em endossomos dilatados contendo HRS-GFP, nos quais também detectou-se CD4 que foi internalizado por Nef. Em conjunto, os resultados indicam que ?2-adaptina é uma importante molécula para o direcionamento de CD4 por Nef para a via ESCRT/MVB, mostrando ser uma proteína relevante no sistema endo-lisossomal. Ademais, os resultados indicaram que as isoformas ?-adaptinas não só possuem funções distintas, mas também parecem compor complexos AP-1 com diferentes funções celulares, já que apenas a variante AP-1 contendo ?2, mas não ?1, participa da regulação negativa de CD4 por Nef. Estes estudos contribuem para o melhor entendimento dos mecanismos moleculares envolvidos na atividade de Nef, que poderão também ajudar na melhor compreensão da patogênese do HIV e da síndrome relacionada. Em adição, este trabalho contribui para o entendimento de processos fundamentais da regulação do tráfego de proteínas transmembrana no sistema endo-lisossomal. / The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is the etiologic agent of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). AIDS is a disease which has a global distribution, and it is estimated that there are currently at least 36.9 million people infected with the virus. During the replication cycle, HIV promotes several changes in the physiology of the host cell to promote their survival and enhance replication. The fast progression of HIV-1 in humans and animal models is closely linked to the function of an accessory protein Nef. Among several actions of Nef, one is the most important is the down-regulation of proteins from the immune response, such as the CD4 receptor. It is known that this action causes CD4 degradation in lysosome, but the molecular mechanisms are still incompletely understood. Nef forms a tripartite complex with the cytosolic tail of the CD4 and adapter protein 2 (AP-2) in clathrin-coated vesicles, inducing CD4 internalization and lysosome degradation. Previous research has demonstrated that CD4 target to lysosomes by Nef involves targeting of this receptor to multivesicular bodies (MVBs) pathway by an atypical mechanism because, although not need charging ubiquitination, depends on the proteins from ESCRTs (Endosomal Sorting Complexes Required for Transport) machinery and the action of Alix, an accessory protein ESCRT machinery. It has been reported that Nef interacts with subunits of AP- 1, AP-2, AP-3 complexes and Nef does not appear to interact with AP-4 and AP-5 subunits. However, the role of Nef interaction with AP-1 or AP-3 in CD4 down-regulation is poorly understood. Furthermore, AP-1, AP-2 and AP-3 are potentially heterogeneous due to the existence of multiple subunits isoforms encoded by different genes. However, there are few studies to demonstrate if the different combinations of APs isoforms are form and if they have distinct functional properties. This study aim to identify and characterize cellular factors involved on CD4 down-modulation induced by Nef from HIV-1. More specifically, this study aimed to characterize the involvement of AP-1 complex in the down-regulation of CD4 by Nef HIV-1 through the functional study of the two isoforms of ?-adaptins, AP-1 subunits. By pull-down technique, we showed that Nef is able to interact with ?2. In addition, our data from immunoblots indicated that ?2- adaptin, not ?1-adaptin, is required in Nef-mediated targeting of CD4 to lysosomes and the ?2 participation in this process is conserved by Nef from different viral strains. Furthermore, by flow cytometry assay, ?2 depletion, but not ?1 depletion, compromises the reduction of surface CD4 levels induced by Nef. Immunofluorescence microscopy analysis also revealed that ?2 depletion impairs the redistribution of CD4 by Nef to juxtanuclear region, resulting in CD4 accumulation in primary endosomes. Knockdown of ?1A, another subunit of AP-1, resulted in decreased cellular levels of ?1 and ?2 and, compromising the efficient CD4 degradation by Nef. Moreover, upon artificially stabilizing ESCRT-I in early endosomes, via overexpression of HRS, internalized CD4 accumulates in enlarged HRS-GFP positive endosomes, where co-localize with ?2. Together, the results indicate that ?2-adaptin is a molecule that is essential for CD4 targeting by Nef to ESCRT/MVB pathway, being an important protein in the endo-lysosomal system. Furthermore, the results indicate that ?-adaptins isoforms not only have different functions, but also seem to compose AP-1 complex with distinct cell functions, and only the AP-1 variant comprising ?2, but not ?1, acts in the CD4 down-regulation induced by Nef. These studies contribute to a better understanding on the molecular mechanisms involved in Nef activities, which may also help to improve the understanding of the HIV pathogenesis and the related syndrome. In addition, this work contributes with the understanding of primordial process regulation on intracellular trafficking of transmembrane proteins.