The Salinas de San Blas Site’s Importance during the Formative Period in the Central Highlands of PerúBased on excavations at San Blas in 1974 the author presents a sequence from Late Archaic to Early Intermediate Period, completed by a short description of the latest San Blas style (late Early Intermediate Period to Late Horizon). Using analogies of ethnohistoric sources discusses the importance of salt production and connections with other areas like Kotosh, Huanuco, and the eastern flank of the Andes (Palcamayo, Tarma, Chanchamayo) showing that Chinchaycocha was not an isolated area but connected closely to wider systems. / Basado en excavaciones en el sitio de San Blas en 1974, el autor presenta una secuencia desde el Periodo Arcaico Tardío al Periodo Intermedio Temprano, complementada con una breve descripción del tardío estilo San Blas (tardío Periodo Intermedio Temprano al Horizonte Tardío) usando analogías de fuentes etnohistóricas. Discute la importancia de la producción de sal y la conexión con otras áreas como Kotosh, Huánuco, y el flanco oriental de los Andes (Palcamayo, Tarma, Chanchamayo) mostrando que la zona de Chinchaycocha no estaba aislada sino más bien conectada de forma estrecha a sistemas más amplios.

Perspectives about the Studies on the Inka Dominance in the Southern Oriental Edge of the KollasuyuThe Inka archaeological record of the Argentine mid-west affords the possibility to consider the space involved effectively controlled by the state organization. The existing documents yield data and offer case studies of the Inka domination over the regional ethnic. The documents also offer an insight of the new relations established with the later domination from the first times of the Spanish conquest, all of which allows to improve understanding of the ways and functions of the Inka control, of the reactions and adjustments, over continuity and change, by evidence recognized in the records.We are presenting part of the known regional Inka infrastructure and materials, their characteristics and functions contrasting them with those of the native population. Thus, based on the former and joining it with archive documents and chroniclers’ references we offer an ad hoc model from the periphery in the austral end and in the final expansion epoch. This model is followed by a, perhaps, similar one for the first times of Spanish influence. / El registro arqueológico inka en el centro-oeste argentino, así como la existencia de documentación de los primeros tiempos coloniales hispánicos —con datos acerca de la dominación y de las nuevas relaciones resultantes— brindan grandes posibilidades de investigación. Así, es factible adentrarse en consideraciones sobre el espacio abarcado y el efectivamente controlado por la organización estatal. Del mismo modo, pueden conocerse las formas y funciones del control, las reacciones y ajustes zonales, la continuidad y el cambio en las diversas expresiones disponibles, entre otros.En el presente trabajo se presentará una parte de la infraestructura y de los materiales inkas regionales conocidos. Estos son tratados sobre la base de sus características y funciones, en contraste con los propios de las poblaciones locales. Tales bases se articularán con la documentación de archivos y referencias de los cronistas. De ello se derivará la interpretación de un modelo ad hoc válido para la periferia, en el extremo austral, para la época final de la expansión. Esta será seguida de un modelo, quizás similar, válido para los primeros tiempos de la incidencia hispánica.

This thesis looks at the people of Nueva Vizcaya's history of resistance to incorporation into the state during the colonial age, and how this history is connected to the contemporary context in the Sierra Tarahumara. To do this, I use and frame the concepts of community, resistance, violence, ethnogenesis, territory and history as intertwined in such a way that the Sierra Tarahumara and its inhabitants cannot be completely disassociated one from another. By looking at the engagements between colonizers and native people of the colonial North of the Nueva España –Tarahumara and other native indigenous people of the Sierra Madre Occidental– in history, and frame the narratives about these historical encounters, drawing colonial accounts, modern narratives and other sources, I contest in this work, allows to frame indigenous societies agency in history. In addition, this thesis endeavors to engage with the broader discussion about ethnogenesis, indigenous resistance to colonialism, native community and ecological conflicts in Nueva Vizcaya and in the Sierra Tarahumara. Finally, this research wants to make sense of the contemporary conflicts over land rights that indigenous communities of the Sierra Tarahumara face today, and connect them with the history of the colonial encounters of the people of the Nueva Vizcaya. I propose that these encounters, in the colonial time of the conquest of the Nueva Vizcaya, and in the national period, are largely a consequence of a colonial process of ethnogenesis that taxonomically indexed native people in categories related to colonial labor needs and control over the territory, which I frame as tarahumarizacíon and raramurización.

Ce travail s’attache à étudier les conséquences qu’ont eu les contacts entre Britanniques et populations amérindiennes sur le mode de vie de ces deux populations dès leur première rencontre. L’idée reçue veut que seuls les Britanniques aient laissé (et lourdement) leur empreinte sur le sol et les peuples qu’ils ont rencontrés à leur arrivée sur le nouveau continent. Or le sujet est ici plutôt celui d’une influence réciproque dans une certaine mesure, au vu de données archéologiques, historiques et ethnohistoriques. Les angles d’étude choisis sont les habitudes et comportements liés directement ou non à l’alimentation (comment se procuraient-ils leur nourriture, comment la cuisinaient-ils, la partageaient-ils, quels liens sociaux découlaient de ces procédés,… ?), les différences culturelles et les rapports aux autres (autres tribus, colons originaires d’autres nations européennes…) qu’ils soient amicaux ou hostiles, diplomatiques ou économiques. / This study investigates the consequences that contacts between British people and Native American populations had on their respective ways of life. There is a widespread cliché in people’s minds according to which only British people would have had (heavily) left their marks on the North American ground and peoples that they encountered. Nevertheless, and contrarily to this idea, we shall tackle here their reciprocal influence, that is the way in which Native tribes also deeply impacted British colonists’ everyday life in the New World. We were able to witness such an influence thanks to archaeological, historical and ethnohistorical evidence. Various angles of study were chosen for this paper: the cultural habits and behaviors directly or indirectly linked to food (how did people have access to food supplies? How were foodstuffs prepared or cooked? Were food and/or meals shared? Which social links and practices -if any- derived from such habits?...). We shall also have to present to the audience what Native people’s connections and attitudes towards other tribes, or colonists from different European nations, were. And these could have been friendly, diplomatic, economical or even hostile relationships, implying political management and thinking ahead of taking actions, which was commonly omitted in the past.

Collca and Sapçi: A Perspective on Inka Storage via Ethnographic AnalogyIn the 1970’s Murra proposed studying post-Inka descendants of the Inka storage (qullka) system by following up the colonial term sapçi. Both Guaman Poma (1615) and the Huarochirí Quechua manuscript (1608) used this obscure word to denote stores for communal use. Today, the same villages in which the Huarochirí texts were gathered have buildings called Collcas, which contain storage deposits much like what Guaman Poma pictured under the name of sapçi. Ethnographic observation (1994-2001) at the Collca of Tupicocha suggests that modern local storage systems up to the 20th century bore significant likeness to the sapci, and lesser likeness to qullka. Like Inka warehousing, the Collca is associated with khipus. Like the colonial sapçi, however, the Collca architecturally fuses warehousing with the central structure of the nucleated village on the Toledan reducción model. Also like Guaman Poma’s sapçi, it administers intracommunal holdings rather than serving the state sector. The ritual regimen which governs the Collca, and which has allowed frequent changes in its design and functions, may offer an ethnographic analogy relevant to both Inka and colonial eras. / En la década de 1970, Murra propuso investigar los derivados posttawantinsuyu del sistema inka de almacenes (qullka) mediante el estudio del término colonial "sapçi". Tanto en el texto de Guaman Poma (1615) como en el manuscrito quechua de Huarochirí (1608) utilizan este vocablo oscuro para denominar lo almacenado para uso comunal. Hoy, los mismos pueblos donde se recogieron las narrativas de Huarochirí poseen edificios llamados collcas; ellas contienen depósitos parecidos al que Guaman Poma dibujó bajo el nombre de sapçi. Las observaciones etnográficas (1994-2001) en la collca de Tupicocha sugieren que los sistemas modernos de almacenamiento guardaron similitudes con el sapçi, y en menor grado, con la qullka, hasta el siglo XX. Al igual que el almacenamiento inka, la collca se asocia con los khipus. De similar manera que el sapçi colonial, la collca fusiona dentro de su arquitectura el almacenamiento y la estructura central del pueblo nucleado en forma de reducción toledana. También hay parecido con el sapçi de Guaman Poma en cuanto que la collca administra bienes intracomunales en vez de servir al sector estatal. El régimen ritual que gobierna la collca, y que ha permitido frecuentes cambios en su diseño y sus funciones, puede ofrecer una analogía etnográfica relevante tanto a los casos inka como colonial.

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Centers of Pilgrimage as Mechanisms of Political Integration in Complex Societies in Titicaca´s AltiplanoPilgrimages to sacred places were a common practice in many prehispanic Andean societies. For example, the islands of the Sun and the Moon, located in southern Lake Titicaca, formed one of the most important pilgrimage routes imposed by the Inca state as part of its politics of state domain. Similarly, the mortuary centers of Cutimbo and Sillustani, belonging respectively to the Lupaqa and Colla chiefdoms, received annual pilgrimages as part of cult ceremonies dedicated to the ancestors.Using ethnohistorical documentation and archaeological information with regard to such pilgrimage centers, we discuss the hypothesis that the pilgrimages served as ideological mechanisms of social and political control on the part of complex societies. / Las peregrinaciones a lugares sagrados fueron una práctica común en diversas sociedades andinas prehispánicas. Las islas del Sol y de la Luna, en el lado sur del lago Titicaca, se interpolan en una de las más importantes rutas de peregrinación que impusieron los incas como parte de su política de dominio estatal. De igual modo, los centros funerarios de Cutimbo y Sillustani, pertenecientes a los señoríos Lupaqa y Colla respectivamente, convocaron peregrinaciones anuales en el marco de ceremonias de culto a los antepasados.Utilizando documentación etnohistórica e información arqueológica, referentes a tales centros de peregrinaje, se discute la hipótesis sobre el uso de las peregrinaciones como mecanismos ideológicos de control social y político por parte de sociedades complejas.

The Sun within the World: Wakas and Saints in the Mines of Charcas and in Lake Titicaca (15th-17th Centuries)Mines and mining offer both for the Andean as the Spanish systems of beliefs the background of a setting in which were developed rites and cult complexes, and if there was an adaptation of European beliefs it is because there existed compatibilities between the two systems of representing the world. Alchemical beliefs approximated, in some manner, both the etiological myth of the Inca-Sun and the the same myth of origin of Andean gold, which was a solar myth. However, the encounter between the two systems of representation did not necessarily determine a series of syncretic practices. All appearances indicate that in Potosi, in the middle of the 17th century, the cult to the Virgin-mountain did not correspond to a popular practice, but neither did it preclude the practice of various autochthonous cults of major historical significance which, in turn, were related among themselves. In the present work, these shamanic cults are analyzed in different mines. The images that issued from them put in play a series of artifacts, of figures and entities that were also encountered in the description of the old Colla cult of the Island of Titicaca, heir of Tiwanaku. All these cults were influenced to a large degree by the religious system elaborated by the Incas. / Las minas ofrecieron tanto al sistema de creencias andino como al español el trasfondo de un paisaje en el que se desarrollaron ritos y cultos complejos, y si hubo una adaptación de las creencias europeas fue porque existían compatibilidades entre los dos sistemas de representación del mundo. Las creencias alquímicas se acercaban, de alguna manera, tanto al mito etiológico del Inca-Sol como al mito de origen del oro andino, que era un mito solar. Sin embargo, el encuentro de esos sistemas de representación no determinó forzosamente una serie de prácticas sincréticas. Todo parece indicar que en Potosí, a mediados del siglo XVII, el culto a la Virgen-cerro no correspondía a una práctica popular, pero tampoco impedía la práctica de varios cultos autóctonos de mayor profundidad histórica que, a su vez, estaban relacionados entre ellos. En el presente trabajo, estos cultos chamánicos se analizan en el caso de diferentes minas. Las imágenes que se desprenden de ellos ponen en juego una serie de artefactos, figuras y entidades que encontramos también en la descripción del viejo culto colla de la isla de Titicaca, heredera de Tiwanaku. Todos estos cultos influenciaron gran parte del sistema religioso elaborado por los incas.

Approach to the True Image of the "Incas by Privilege"This study aims at clarifying the identity of one special social category in the Inca state, "the Incas by privilege". Historians and cultural anthropologists have argued that the Incas by privilege played a part in the maintenance of domination by the Incas, but they do not explain the reason(s) for the existence of this category of people. This is due to the scarcity and ambiguity of information about them in the historical documents. However, in order to clarify the historical processes of the territorial expansion of the Inca state, it is essential to advance research on the social and political function of the Incas by privilege. This study undertakes such an analysis by discussing some of the central characteristics of this group of people as they are described and characterized in the chronicles. / El presente trabajo trata de aclarar la imagen de una categoría social en el Estado incaico, llamada "incas de privilegio", analizando principalmente las crónicas indígenas. Es claro que casi todos los historiadores o etnohistoriadores coinciden en afirmar que los incas de privilegio desempeñaban algún papel en el mantenimiento de la dominación del Estado incaico, pero no precisan su razón de ser en dicho Estado. Naturalmente, eso se debe principalmente a la falta de noticias sobre ellos en los documentos o crónicas, y a que la mayoría de estas pocas noticias son muy vagas. Pero, para aclarar mucho más la realidad histórica de la expansión del dominio del Estado incaico en los Andes, es innegable e indispensable desarrollar la investigación sobre la función social y política de los incas de privilegio. En este trabajo, por ello, se pretende demostrar sus características a través del análisis de las crónicas y a manera de ensayo, con la esperanza de que su estudio sea profundizado por los arqueólogos y los antropólogos.

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