Student Number : 0216658A - PhD thesis - School of Social Sciences - Faculty of Humanities / This thesis is a study of underground organisation from the 1950s until 1976, though it also draws on material prior to and after these periods. It delves into an area of social activity that has been relatively invisible in scholarship on South Africa and resistance history. The study considers the concept of underground operations. It is taken to include not only the place where the ‘final’ activities may have taken place, but those countries where cadres were trained or housed, even if this would normally be characterised as located in ‘exile’. It is ‘outside’, but it such activities are also treated as part of the underground phenomenon considered as a whole. At the level of historiography the thesis is a re-reading of early ANC underground, partly giving a different interpretation to existing literature, but also relying on the insights of oral informants. The establishment of the SACP underground is fleshed out through interview material, but the thesis challenges the notion that the Party controlled the ANC, arguing in contrast that the conditions of the alliance demanded limitations on SACP’s autonomy. In the period after Rivonia the conventional historiography speaks of a lull and an absence of the ANC and its allies. The thesis provides evidence to contradict this showing that while there may have been silence, there was never absence. It also probes the relationship between ANC and Black Consciousness, where it shows far more overlap than much of the existing literature has disclosed. The study is at once a historical narrative and also an attempt to characterise the social character of this area of study, the special features that go to make up clandestine organisaton. Within this characterisation of underground activity, the thesis also probes the gendered nature of these activities, the definite impact of concepts of masculinity and femininity within a conventionally male terrain. Related to these questions the thesis probes the relationship between the personal and organisational, both at the level of individual decision-making and notions of love and realising emotions. The chapter on gender examines the denial of manhood to African men and considers ANC masculinities and assertion of the need to regain manhood in that context. The thesis also examines the entry of women into the male world of the army and underground, explaining many of the difficulties and the countervailing efforts of women as well as certain men to assert the rights of women to equal participation. The chapter on the impact of revolutionary activity on the personal examines the subordination of individual judgement to the collective and in the personal sphere, notions of revolutionary love, found not only in South Africa but in most revolutionary struggles, where ‘love for the people’ tends to displace inter-personal love. The final chapter –by way of an epilogue- examines the outcomes of struggles after 1976, initiated by various forces including the underground organisation. In this period ANC hegemony begins to consolidate and the character of that hegemony is broken down into various components.

A tese apresenta um estudo comparativo entre a obra poética do moçambicano Rui Knopfli (1932-1997) e a do português Manuel Alegre (1936-) a partir do conceito de \"escrita de si\" (M. Foucault, 1983). Acompanha e reflete sobre o percurso literário de ambos os autores, estabelecendo relações com suas experiências de conhecimento público e suas concepções quanto à literatura, política e pátria. Em suma, os sujeitos poéticos de Knopfli e Alegre, tais quais aqueles sujeitos históricos, manifestam-se como descentrados em relação a quaisquer discursos \"oficiais\", seja o mais restrito das Academias e da Crítica Literária, seja o mais amplo do Estado Novo português - e mesmo o de grupos políticos contrários a este, incluindo, no caso do escritor africano, o da Frente de Libertação de Moçambique (Frelimo). São, portanto, vozes \"deslocadas\", de um eu \"insilado\". Todavia, tal sentido não se restringe ao figurativo: ambos os literatos, em sua realidade objetiva, ainda que em momentos alternados, foram marcados pela saída, traumática e por motivos políticos, de seu local original, de seu espaço, de sua pátria; conheceram de fato o exílio físico e, igualmente, transformaram tal experiência em matéria poética. Ao longo de seus percursos, sempre sob a sina de deslocados ou descentrados, a poesia de ambos revela-se igualmente ativa e repleta de caminhos e descaminhos bastante próximos - e, se a História e o mundo sensível vão ganhando ares de desilusão para aqueles homens, o discurso poético mostra-se como mais do que um meio para se denunciarem esteticamente a ditadura e a colonização portuguesas e a dor e o sofrimento dos envolvidos nas guerras coloniais/independentistas. A Poesia é também o espaço, processo e resultado para e de uma reflexão por parte do ser, constituindo essa sua discursivização como uma \"escrita de si\". Ademais, a Poesia, que por fim se torna a Pátria possível, ultrapassa os limites político-geográficos do território onde se encontram ou gostariam de se encontrar e, até mesmo e acima de tudo, os da morte, o exílio derradeiro da vida, sempre à espreita e que se (pré-)sente cada vez mais com a passagem do tempo. / The thesis presents a comparative study between the poetic work of the Mozambican Rui Knopfli (1932-1997) and that one of the Portuguese Manuel Alegre (1936-) from the concept of \"self writing\" (M. Foucault, 1983). It accompanies and reflects on the literary course of both authors, establishing relations with their experiences of public knowledge and their conceptions regarding literature, politics and homeland. In short, their poetic subjects, just like those historical subjects, are decentered in relation to any \"official\" discourse, whether the narrowest of the Academies and the Literary Criticism, or the broadest of the Portuguese Estado Novo and even that one of political groups opposed to it, including, in the case of the African writer, the one coming from the Frente de Libertação de Moçambique (Frelimo). They are therefore \"displaced\" voices, from an I in inner exile. However, this sense is not restricted to the figurative: both in their objective reality, even in alternated moments, were marked by the exit, traumatic and for political reasons, from their original place, from their space, from their homeland; they did indeed know the physical exile and, likewise, transformed this experience into poetic matter. Throughout their journeys, always under the sign of displaced or decentralized, the poetry of both is equally active and full of paths and misfortunes quite close and if History and the sensitive world are gaining airs of disillusionment for those men, the poetic discourse shows that it can be beyond the means to denounce aesthetically the Portuguese dictatorship and colonization and the pain and suffering of those involved in the colonial / independence wars. Poetry is also the space, process and result for and of a reflection on the part of the being, constituting this discursivization like a \"self writing\". In addition, Poetry, which finally becomes the possible homeland, goes beyond the political-geographical limits of the territory where they are or would like to be and even and above all the limits of death, the ultimate exile of life, always on the look-out and that can be felt more and more as time goes by.

Jorge de Sena figura como personalidade poética de difícil enquadramento nas searas de produção poética da década de 40 a 60 em Portugal. Não tendo sido um poeta presencista ou neorrealista, nem surrealista ou sequer aderindo fielmente ao fingimento poético de Fernando Pessoa, o poeta português forja uma poética própria a partir da ideia de testemunho e de metamorfose esta avultando como resultado poético do ato ético-estético da poesia, através da simbiose entre sujeito empírico e sujeito poético. Esta dissertação tem por objetivo investigar a (não) figuração de paisagens poéticas relacionadas aos seus destinos de exílio: Portugal, Brasil, e Estados Unidos da América. Ou seja, o que pode ser visto ou aquilo que é escondido destas e nestas paragens de sua peregrinação infecta, encontrada em sua Peregrinatio ad Loca Infecta (1969), diário tornado objeto estético na configuração ética de seu testemunho circunstancial. Para tanto, a investigação apoia-se nos estudos geográficos de orientação humanista-cultural, bem como nos estudos em torno da relação entre escrita poética e paisagem, desenvolvidos pelo crítico francês Michel Collot. / Jorge de Sena figures as a poetic personality of difficult framing in the poetic scene production from the 40\'s to 60\'s in Portugal. He was not a presentialist or neorealist poet, nor surrealist or even adhering faithfully to Fernando Pessoas own poetics. This Portuguese poet forges a poetics of his own from the idea of testimony and metamorphosis which stands as the poetical result of the aesthetic and ethical act of his poetry, that occurring through a symbiosis between the empirical subject and the poetic subject. This thesis investigates the figurations or not of poetic landscapes related to his destinations of exile: Portugal, Brazil, and United States of America. Therefore, what can be seen or what is hidden from these places and in these spaces of his infected pilgrimage, in his Peregrinatio ad Loca Infecta (1969), an infectious diary turned into an aesthetic object in the ethical configuration of his circumstantial testimony. To do that so, this investigation is supported on geographic studies from a humanistic and cultural orientation, and also upon the studies concerning to the relation between poetry and landscape promoted by the French schollar Michel Collot.

Nesta pesquisa analiso as idéias culturais e políticas publicadas na revista Araucaria de Chile , que foi publicada entre 1978 e 1990 por um grupo de intelectuais exilados chilenos militantes ou próximos ao Partido Comunista do Chile. Tratava-se de uma revista cultural que tinha como objetivo servir como um meio de circulação de idéias culturais entre a comunidade chilena exilada. A contingência de surgimento desta publicação: o golpe pinochetista, a perseguição e o exílio de milhares de chilenos fez de Araucaria uma publicação engajada na defesa da democracia no Chile e nos demais países latino-americanos que viviam sob regimes similares durante os doze anos em que foi publicada. / In this research, I analise the cultural and political ideas published in Araucária de Chile Magazine, printed in the period between 1978 and 1990 by a group of intellectual Chileans in exile, or else by people next to the Chilean Communist Party. Araucaria de Chile was a cultural magazine, which purpose was being a way to circulate cultural ideas among Chileans in exile.The containment of the emergence of this publication, the Chilean coup d\'état, the persecution and the exile of thousands of Chileans made Araucaria a magazine involved in defense of democracy in Chile and the other latin-american countries, which were under similar dictatorships during the twelve years it was printed.

Esta pesquisa tem como objetivo analisar as representações políticas sobre o Chile na obra fílmica do cineasta Miguel Littín realizada em seu exílio político, entre 1973 e 1990. Engajado politicamente, o diretor produziu filmes no Chile e, devido à sua identificação com o governo de Salvador Allende (1970-1973), foi obrigado a exilar-se após o golpe de Estado, ocorrido em 1973. Em sua trajetória no exílio, Miguel Littín transitou por diversos países europeus e americanos dirigindo películas, participando de debates e construindo redes de solidariedades. Procuramos mostrar que essa forma de resistência a partir do exílio foi permeada por diversas tensões e divergências entre estrangeiros e exilados chilenos. Dentre as obras selecionadas para a pesquisa, analisaremos de forma privilegiada Actas de Marusia e Acta general de Chile, porque abordam a realidade chilena. A primeira foi produzida no México em 1975 e retrata um massacre de trabalhadores do salitre ocorrido no norte do Chile, no início do século XX. A segunda constitui uma série de documentários exibida pela Televisión Española em 1986 e exibe a luta social contra a ditadura de Augusto Pinochet. Procuraremos mostrar que a filmografia de Miguel Littín e sua atuação no exterior contribuem para a compreensão das lutas contra a ditadura chilena a partir de um novo ângulo, o audiovisual. / This research aims to analyze the political representations of Chile in the film work of the filmmaker Miguel Littin made in his political exile from 1973 to 1990. Politically engaged, the director made films in Chile and, because of its identification with the government of Salvador Allende (1970-1973), was forced to go into exile, after the coup d\'état in 1973. During his career in exile, Miguel Littin moved between European and American countries directing films, participating in debates and extending solidarity networks. We tried to show that this form of \"resistance\" from the exile was permeated by various tensions and disagreements with foreigners and Chilean exiles. Among the works selected for the research, we will analyze in a privileged way the films Actas de Marusia and Acta General de Chile, because they represented the Chilean reality. The first was produced in Mexico in 1975 and portrait a massacre of saltpetre workers that occurred in northern Chile, in the early twentieth century. The second is a documentary series aired by Televisión Española in 1986, and displays the social struggle against the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet. We seek to show that the filmography of Miguel Littin and its activities abroad contribute to the understanding of the struggles against the Chilean dictatorship from a new angle, the audiovisual.

Esta dissertação propõe uma leitura crítica do romance Libro de navíos y borrascas, do escritor argentino Daniel Moyano, publicado em 1983. Tal leitura se constrói a partir do desenvolvimento de perspectivas de análise que levam em conta, por um lado, o caráter alegórico da narrativa e, por outro, a singularidade da enunciação de seu narrador, sendo a experiência do exílio o eixo articulador de nossa abordagem crítica. A teoria de Walter Benjamin sobre alegoria e narração e as relações entre enunciação e subjetividade, pensadas a partir das reflexões de Benveniste, Ricardo Piglia e Giorgio Agamben, nos fornecem alguns dos embasamentos teóricos mais fundamentais no traçado de uma reflexão acerca de como a relação entre linguagem e experiência configura a narrativa de Libro de navíos y borrascas como uma ficção do exílio. Na tentativa de contribuir para a consolidação de uma fortuna crítica da obra de Daniel Moyano, um autor pouco estudado tanto na Argentina como no Brasil, nosso estudo parte de fatores estéticos e históricos que dizem respeito ao contexto de produção do romance, bem como a determinadas concepções de seu autor acerca da escrita literária e às perspectivas críticas que se dedicaram à ficção argentina dos anos 1980, produzida sob o último regime militar vivido por aquele país. / This dissertation proposes a critical reading of the Argentinean writer Daniel Moyanos novel Libro de navíos y borrascas, published in 1983. Such reading is built on the development of perspectives of analysis that consider, on the one hand, the narratives allegorical characteristics, and on the other hand, its narrator enunciation uniqueness, where the exile experience is the articulating axis of our critical approach. Walter Benjamins theory on allegory and narration, as well as the relations between enunciation and subjectivity, considered from Benvenistes, Ricardo Piglias and Giorgio Agambens reflections, provide us some of the most fundamental theoretical foundation on the outline of a reflection on how language and experience define Libro de navíos y borrascass narrative as an exile fiction. In an attempt to contribute towards consolidating the critical fortune of Daniel Moyanos work, a scarcely studied author both in Argentina and Brazil, our study considers aesthetical and historical factors regarding the novels context of production, as well as certain conceptions of its author about literary writing and critical perspectives that dedicated themselves to the 1980s Argentinean fiction, produced under the latest military regime lived by that country.

Jesús Díaz est un auteur cubain dont le parcours de vie et la production littéraire sont intimement liés à la révolution et à la manière dont celle-ci a infléchi la société et induit des changements dans la perception de l’identité nationale. Ses premiers textes rendent compte de son adhésion sans failles au processus révolutionnaire, alors que ses six romans sont le reflet de ses doutes et du désenchantement. On peut les lire comme le journal d’une désillusion, le constat amer d’une identité écartelée. L’avènement de l’Homme Nouveau n’aura pas lieu et les personnages des trois premiers romans de Díaz verront s’effondrer leurs certitudes, leurs convictions et les croyances sur lesquelles ils avaient bâti leurs espoirs. Ceux des trois romans suivants vont au-delà de l’adieu à la Révolution ; ils doivent se réconcilier avec l’absurdité de l’existence et les contraintes de l’Histoire pour redonner un sens à leur vie.Tous les grands sujets liés à l’identité sont présents dans l’oeuvre romanesque de Jesús Díaz, que ce soit la question raciale, l’insularité, la question de l’identité par rapport à l’altérité et le lien controversé mais indéfectible entre les Cubains de l’intérieur et ceux de l’exil, la question de l’articulation entre identité individuelle et collective ou encore les concepts de cubanía et cubanidad. Ainsi, les six romans de Jesús Díaz forment une oeuvre dont l’unité ne dépend pas de la continuité narrative ni de la récurrence de personnages ou de lieux. L’ensemble constitue cependant un tout cohérent qui permet la redéfinition du concept de cubanité comme un processus constamment remis en cause par les aléas de l’Histoire et du contexte mondial. / Jesus Diaz is a Cuban author where by the course of his life and his literary production are intimately linked to the revolution and the manner of which it influenced the society and induced changes to the perception of the national identity. His first texts tell of his unwavering adherence to the revolutionary process, his six novels on the other hand, reflec this doubts and disenchantment. They can be read like the diary of a disillusion, the bitter acknowledgment of a torn apart identity. Succession of a New Man will not happen and the characters of Diaz's first three novels, will see the collapse of their certitudes, convictions and beliefs on which they had built their hopes. Those of the three following novels go beyond the farewell of the revolution. They must reconciliate with the absurdity of existence and restraints of history to give a new sense to their life. All the major subjects linked to identity are present in Diaz's work, whether it is a racial question, the insularity, the identity question with regards to the otherness and the controversial and the indestructible link between domestic Cubans and those in exile, the articulation question between the individual and collective identity, the notions of cubanía and cubanidad.Therefore, Jesús Díaz's six novels compose of a work whereby each unit is neither dependent on the narrative continuity nor the recurrence of the characters nor the places. Together they constitute nevertheless a coherence which allow the redefining of the cubanity concept like a process being constantly questioned by the unknown historical factors and the global context.

Na pesquisa de Mestrado intitulada \"Seamus Heaney: Polifonia (da) Poética do Exílio\" concluímos que o poeta desestabiliza a noção de subjetividade à medida que se afasta de seu lugar de origem. Nesse sentido, encontramos o eu lírico em uma peregrinação católica em que reconstrói, simbolicamente, as fragmentações e divisões de sua comunidade nativa, uma vez que ele próprio cria diálogos imaginários entre seu passado, presente e futuro. Rompendo com as noções lineares de espaço e tempo, Heaney compõe uma poética do exílio como fruto de uma consciência polifônica, em que a atividade poética depende: 1. das personas (subalternas ou literárias) que fizeram parte de sua constituição artística; 2. da culpa de ter-se afastado da Irlanda do Norte em meio à crise civil; e 3. o desejo de liberdade proveniente da visão crítica de James Joyce. Ao fazer movimentos circulares em torno de si mesmo e de sua terra, o autor reproduz o símbolo celta do triskele, através do qual ele reflete sobre as implicações do fazer poético do autor na literatura contemporânea. / The masters research entitled \"Seamus Heaney: Polyphonic Poetics of Exile\" enabled us to conclude that, as the poet distances himself from his native homeland, he de-constructs the notion of poetic subjectivity. Therefore, in order to display this feature, the persona embraces a catholic pilgrimage through which he reconstructs symbolically the fragmentations and divisions of his own community, whilst he himself creates imaginary dialogues between his past, present and future. Overcoming the traditional chronotope of linear time and space, Heaney gives rise to an exile poetics whose polyphonic consciousness stems from: 1. the personas (subaltern or literary) that have belonged to his artistic constitution; 2. the guilt of distancing himself from Northern Ireland in the middle of a civil war; and 3. the desire of liberty provided by the critical vision of James Joyce. As long as he performs circular movements around himself and his land, the author reproduces the Celtic symbol triskele through which he reflects about the implications of writing poetry in contemporary society.

A presente dissertação dedica-se ao estudo da obra poética de Luis Cernuda (1902-1963), concentrando-se em seu último livro, Desolación de la quimera, escrito entre os anos de 1956-1962. A investigação se detém na presença do mito enquanto arquitetura textual da referida obra e procura mostrar como essa questão é relevante na construção desses poemas a ponto de transformá-los em etopeyas. / The present study investigates the works of the Spanish poet Luis Cernuda (1902-1963), specifically his last poetry book, Desolación de la quimera, written between 1956 and 1962. The research focuses on the presence of myth as a textual architecture and attempts to demonstrate how this question is central to the construction of these poems as \"etopeyas\".

[pt] Este trabalho investiga a produção historiográfica e os artigos políticos do historiador português Joaquim Barradas de Carvalho no período em que viveu no Brasil na condição de exilado político (entre os anos de 1964 e 1970). O principal objetivo é demonstrar que a produção acadêmica de Barradas é influenciada e influencia sua visão política. O pesquisador e professor da USP é um espelho do membro do Partido Comunista Português e opositor do Salazarismo – espelho que reflete e, ao mesmo tempo, é refletido. Verificou-se que experiência de Barradas enquanto exilado no Brasil tem uma importância fundamental na definição de suas posições acadêmica e política (influindo tanto na imagem que traça do Regime Salazarista como na sua própria auto-imagem enquanto intelectual). Procura-se, também, entender a singular forma como o historiador caracteriza o período dos Descobrimentos – entendido como auge da História Portuguesa, e centro em torno do qual se organizam todos os outros períodos. Com esse objetivo analisam-se as influências teóricas na obra de Barradas, especialmente a do discurso decadentista – grupo de autores portugueses que tinham em comum uma denúncia da decadência da sociedade lusitana relacionada a um sentimento de saudade do seu passado glorioso. Por fim, constatou-se que essa visão histórica de Barradas determina e é determinada pela sua oposição ao salazarismo (entendido como verdadeira antítese da cultura dos Descobrimentos). / [en] This work investigates the historiographic production and the political articles from the Portuguese historian Joaquim Barradas de Carvalho in the period that he lived in Brazil in exile (from 1964 to 1970). The main goal is to show that Barrdas` academic production is influenced and it also influences his political point of view. The researcher and USP`s professor is a mirror from the member of the Portuguese Communist Party and opponent to Salazarism - mirror that reflects and is reflected at the same time. It was noticed that Barradas - experience as an exile in Brazil has a fundamental importance on the definition of his academic and political positions (influencing either on the image that he creates of the Salazarist scheme or on his own auto- image as an intellectual person). It is also sought to understand the singular way the author characterizes the discoveries period seen as the peak of the Portuguese History, and the center in which all the other periods are organized. With this objective, it is verified the theoretical influences on Barradas` work, specially on the decandestist speech group of Portuguese authors that had in common a warning for the decadence of the Portuguese society related to a saudade feeling from its glorious past. Finally, it is noticed that this Baradas` historical view determines and is determined by his opposing to salazarism (seen as a truly antithesis from the culture of the discoveries).