Digitaliseringens ständiga utveckling inom samhället och verksamheter har lett till nya fenomen och förutsättningar vilket har medfört nya utmaningar. Desinformation är ett avdessa begrepp som har fått allt större betydelse inom det digitala samhället som finns idag. Begreppet som har uppmärksammats alltmer syftar till missvisande, felaktig och falskutformad information. Desinformation blir allt vanligare och det problemområde som identifierats är hur verksamheter hanterar existensen av desinformation. Därmed strävade studien mot att svara på frågeställningen: Vilka tillvägagångssätt har verksamheter för att hantera desinformation i sin användning av digital teknik? Studien genomfördes med en kvalitativ forsknings- och metodansats som syftar till att skapa förståelse kring begreppet desinformation, dess bakomliggande faktorer samt vilka tillvägagångssätt verksamheter använder sig av samt hanteringen av begreppet för att minska risken av dess konsekvenser. Datainsamling genomfördes genom en intervjustudie med sju verksamheter samt fem stycken fokusgruppsintervjuer. Resultatet från datainsamlingen påvisade att det finns en bred definition kring betydelsen av desinformation samt att det inom verksamheterna inte finns någon uttalad strategi eller tillvägagångssätt för att hantera desinformation. Det upplevdes finnas tillräckligt med stort förtroende för medarbetarnas egna ansvar i att agera källkritiskt. Befintlig litteratur identifierar att det finns svårigheter kring att upptäcka om informationen är sann eller inte men även att den mänskliga faktorn har betydelse för bedömningen av informationen. Även individens tidigare erfarenheter har betydelse. Det som däremot framkom som studiens slutsats var att följande faktorer var en del av verksamhetens tillvägagångssätt för att avgöra trovärdigheten i information: arbeta med kända aktörer och källor, agera källkritiskt, avgränsa hur intern information hanteras inom verksamheten och bedöma utseende av informationen såsom grammatik och språkbruk. / The digitalization’s constant development in society and in businesses has led to new phenomena and concepts that have not previously existed, which have caused problems. Misinformation is a new concept that has gotten a greater meaning with the digital society that exists today. Misinformation has received increasing attention and refers to misleading, incorrect and falsely designed information. The problem area that is identified is how companies handle the existence of misinformation. The purpose of the study was to answer the research question: What approaches do businesses apply to handle misinformation in their use of digital technology? The study was conducted with a qualitative research and method approach that aims to create an understanding of the concept of misinformation, its underlying factors and what approaches business use when dealing with misinformation to reduce the risk of its consequences. Data collection was conducted through an interview study with seven businesses and five focus group interviews. The results from the data collection showed that there is a broad definition of misinformation and that there is no stated strategy or approach within the operations to deal with misinformation. It was identified that there was enough confidence in the employee's own responsibility in acting source critical. Existing literature identifies that there are difficulties in discovering whether the information is true or not. The human factor has meaning and whether the information is in line with the individual’s opinions. The study's conclusion was that the following factors were a part of the business's approach to determining credibility in information: working with well-known sources, acting with source criticism, defining how information is handled within the business and assessing the appearance of the information such as grammar and language usage.

Comparative case study consists of 12 chapters and is composed as qualitative research. The main goal of the study is to research the fake news used in chosen set of data, consisting of 13 television debates. The case study works with two cases - the presidential election in the Czech Republic (2018) and in Slovakia (2019). First part of the analysis deals with methodology and theoretical background for fake news and role of television debates in election campaign. Next part is dedicated to the analyzed cases of elections, briefly covering the development of the election campaign followed by analysis. The results of the analysis are summed up in the independent chapter. As the most used fake news themes in given debates the analysis identifies following: migration, negative attitude towards media, questionable funding of the campaign and attempts to influence the elections. The main difference in the cases is the nature of the competition, when the acting president is running for re-election. Keywords: Fake news, desinformation, president, elections, campaign, television debate, Miloš Zeman, Jiří Drahoš, Zuzana Čaputová, Maroš Šefčovič

[pt] A disseminação de histórias falsas em aplicativos de mensagens e redes sociais da internet foi um dos elementos centrais da conversação civil no Brasil no período que antecedeu as eleições presidenciais brasileiras em 2018. A preocupação com a disseminação da desinformação – fenômeno que se compõe, entre outros elementos, por informações erradas, descontextualizadas, distorcidas ou falsificadas – se refletiu na quantidade de histórias falsas verificadas e desmentidas por agências independentes de checagens de fatos. No período de 20 dias entre as votações de primeiro e segundo turnos das eleições, as seis principais agências do país publicaram 228 verificações de histórias falsas disseminadas em redes sociais da internet ou aplicativos de troca mensagens, referentes a 132 diferentes pautas. A proposta desta pesquisa é identificar os temas destas histórias falsas e analisar as categorizações enunciadas em seus discursos, com a utilização da Análise de Categorização de Pertencimento (ACP), ferramenta teórico-metodológica de origem na Etnometodologia, aplicada aos textos das histórias falsas divulgados pelas agências. / [en] One of the main aspects of public debate in Brazil in the period that preceded the 2018 presidential elections was the dissemination of false stories via social media and messaging apps. Disinformation, misinformation and mal-information – phenomena that comprehends, among others, elements such as wrongful, out of context, distorted and fabricated information – were a major concern in the context of the election, which could be seen in the number of false stories debunked by independent fact-checkers. In the 20-day period between the two rounds of the presidential election, six fact-checking websites posted 228 verifications of false stories disseminated through social media and/or messaging apps, which covered about 132 different topics. This research aims to identify which were the topics of those false stories and analyze the categorizations enunciated in their discourses. In order to do so, the methodological perspective utilized was the Membership Categorization Analysis (MCP), affiliated with the tradition of Ethnomethodology, applied to the false stories discourses as quoted by the fact-checking websites.

Misinformation, oder „Fake News“, ist in der Online-Kommunikation weit verbreitet und beeinflusst Diskurs und Zusammenleben. Es ist jedoch wenig darüber bekannt, wie wir auf individueller Ebene beeinflusst werden, wenn wir Meinungen bilden und Urteile ableiten. Diese Dissertation untersucht die kognitiven und Gehirn Mechanismen, die der Verarbeitung sozialer, personenbezogener Misinformation zugrunde liegen. Proband*innen wurden mit negativen, positiven oder relativ neutralen personenbezogenen Nachrichten konfrontiert, die entweder verbal als unglaubwürdig gekennzeichnet waren, z.B. "angeblich", oder aus bekannten Medienquellen stammten, die als glaubwürdig oder unglaubwürdig wahrgenommen wurden. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass soziale Urteile stark vom emotionalen Gehalt beeinflusst waren, unabhängig von der Glaubwürdigkeit. Elektrophysiologische Korrelate früher emotionaler und erregungsbezogener Prozesse sowie Korrelate späterer evaluierender Verarbeitung waren verstärkt für Personen, die mit emotionalen Inhalten assoziiert wurden—unabhängig von der Glaubwürdigkeit der Information. Emotionale Inhalte wirken also nicht nur auf die unwillkürliche und früher Reaktion auf Nachrichten, sondern sogar auf Prozesse, für die erwartet wurde, dass sie die Information aufgrund ihrer Glaubwürdigkeit evaluieren würden. Um zu intervenieren, bewerteten die Proband*innen vor der Konfrontation mit Schlagzeilen explizit die Glaubwürdigkeit der Quelle. Dies half teilweise, die Glaubwürdigkeit positiver Nachrichteninhalte zu verarbeiten. Die Einsicht in die fehlende Glaubwürdigkeit hatte jedoch keinen Einfluss auf die Effekte negativer Nachrichteninhalte. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen, wie der emotionale Gehalt sozialer Misinformation das Gehirn und das Urteilsvermögen beeinflussen kann, selbst wider besseres Wissen über die fehlende Glaubwürdigkeit. Perspektivisch helfen diese Erkenntnisse, uns den Herausforderungen von Misinformation aus Sicht der individuellen Kognition zu stellen. / Misinformation, also called “fake news”, is highly prevalent in online communication affecting public discourse and social coexistence. However, little is known about how we are affected by it on the individual level when we derive opinions and judgments. This dissertation investigates the cognitive and brain mechanisms underlying the processing of social, person-related misinformation. Participants were exposed to negative, positive, or relatively neutral news about other persons that was either verbally marked as untrustworthy by adding e.g., “allegedly”, or stemmed from well-known media sources perceived as trusted or distrusted. We found that social person judgments strongly relied on the emotional content independent of the credibility, showing how social misinformation affects person evaluation although it is perceived as untrustworthy. Electrophysiological indexes of early emotional and arousal-related processes, as well as correlates of later evaluative processing were enhanced for persons associated with emotional contents regardless of the credibility of the information. This shows the pronounced influence of emotional contents not only on the initial and early response to news, but even on processes that were expected to evaluate the information on merit of its credibility. In a first attempt to intervene, participants explicitly evaluated the credibility of the source before reading the headlines. This helped to overcome the bias for positive news and process its credibility to some degree. However, the insight into the lack of credibility had no influence on the effects of negative news on brain responses and social judgments. Our results demonstrate how emotional content in social misinformation can affect mind, brain, and judgments even against better knowledge of its lacking credibility. In perspective, these insights help to face the challenges of misinformation from the perspective of the individual’s cognition.

Denna studie syftar till att söka inställningen till källkritik i dagens medielandskap hos ett antal intervjuade nyhetskonsumenter. I en värld med allt mer falska nyheter och större informationsmängd behöver vi se över hur vi ser på källkritik, vad det innebär att vara källkritisk och hos vem ansvaret för källkritiken ligger. För att söka dessa svar genomfördes en intervjustudie med semi-strukturerade intervjuer. Att källkritik är en komplex fråga framstod tydligt och den ökade mängden information gör den än mer komplex. Mängden information tillsammans med debatten om falska nyheter har bidragit till en ökad medvetenhet kring källkritik. Många intressanta frågor uppkommer som en följd av detta, bland annat hur en ska klara av att vara källkritisk.

This thesis examines how traditional media could reinforce its position as a reliable source of information, overcoming the huge amount of misinformation in public space. First, the thesis analyzes the concept of fake news, examining different concepts of this expression across American and Anglo-Saxon environments. In the following chapters, the thesis presents a link between trust in media and the spread of fake news, outlines psychological factors that allow for fake news to be spread easily and highlights the role of media literacy. Next chapters list the specific ways in which traditional media can fight against fake news, for example through slow journalism or factual verification. That is how the thesis gets to the three analyzed fact-checking departments, which were established as a part of foreign traditional media: ARD Faktenfinder, BBC Reality Check and RFE / RL / VOA Polygraph.info. These departments were founded between 2015 and 2017 and perceive verification of information as an independent journalistic output. Using semi-structured interviews, the thesis examines how these departments work, how they define fake news, what are their future plans or whether they actively contribute to the development of media literacy. Comparative analysis has shown that none of the departments has...

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Genom grafisk design har en visuell berättelse i tre delar skapats. Syftet med berättelsen är att påpeka hur verkliga konsekvenser av ”Fake News” är, öka medvetenhet och uppmana till diskussion om källkritik. / Through graphic design, a visual story in three parts has been created. The purpose of this story is to indicate how substantial the consequences of ”Fake News” are, raise awareness, and request you to be part of a discussion about source criticism.

The social meaning of television news has been under transformation since the successes of cable news in the final years of the previous century. In their attempts to preserve viewership and to remain relevant, traditional broadcast news outlets increasingly emulate the conventions of cable news. Instead of retaining audiences, the result has been declining news content and a continued loss of viewers. Amid these industry transformations, the concept of “journalist” continues to undergo change. This evolution of the news allows for a decidedly unique response to news programming in The Daily Show With Jon Stewart. Though advertised as a half-hour comedy show, it has established itself as a consistent re-teller and producer of news, only possible in a postmodern era of journalism after objectivity. Amid the industry’s shift in priorities from objectivity and reporting to influencing, framing and re-telling the news, The Daily Show is considered as much an example of journalism as many of the shows currently in the news sphere. Although our society is currently saturated with information, this information often fails to penetrate the surface of the issues covered. Too much information is as paralytic as ignorance. Recently, attention has shifted towards a re-evaluation of television news into something that will both help the public find the information they are searching for and give them the tools to make sense of and utilize that information. This concept of journalism as tool is present in every episode of The Daily Show. The show encourages viewers to peel away the layers of mediation of traditional newscasts, to recognize substance and the lack thereof, and become active consumers of information rather than passive receptacles submersed in irrelevant information. The Daily Show proves that a news show can inform, entertain and teach audiences how to critically process television as an informational medium.

The social meaning of television news has been under transformation since the successes of cable news in the final years of the previous century. In their attempts to preserve viewership and to remain relevant, traditional broadcast news outlets increasingly emulate the conventions of cable news. Instead of retaining audiences, the result has been declining news content and a continued loss of viewers. Amid these industry transformations, the concept of "journalist" continues to undergo change. This evolution of the news allows for a decidedly unique response to news programming in The Daily Show With Jon Stewart. Though advertised as a half-hour comedy show, it has established itself as a consistent re-teller and producer of news, only possible in a post-modern era of journalism after objectivity. Amid the industry's shift in priorities from objectivity and reporting to influencing, framing and re-telling the news, The Daily Show is considered as much an example of journalism as many of the shows currently in the news sphere. Although our society is currently saturated with information, this information often fails to penetrate the surface of the issues covered. Too much information is as paralytic as ignorance. Recently, attention has shifted towards a re-evaluation of television news into something that will both help the public find the information they are searching for and give them the tools to make sense of and utilize that information. This concept of journalism as tool is present in every episode of The Daily Show. The show encourages viewers to peel away the layers of mediation of traditional newscasts, to recognize substance and the lack thereof, and become active consumers of information rather than passive receptacles submersed in irrelevant information. The Daily Show proves that a news show can inform, entertain and teach audiences how to critically process television as an informational medium.